Phases of development
During the growth process, grain grains undergo changes that are associated with the formation of organs. This morphological process is called "phases". From the moment the crop is sowed until the grain is fully ripened, the following phases are observed:
- Shoots. Growing grain crops begins from the moment the seeds begin to germinate. First, the germinal roots appear. Their number differs. During germination, winter wheat has three roots, spring wheat has five, rye has four, and barley has from five to seven. Breads of the millet group have only one germinal root, but several more appear during plant development. However, their ability to absorb nutrients is one and a half times lower than that of the embryonic one. Immediately behind the roots, seedlings appear, enclosed in modified leaves (coleoptiles), which serve as protection for young plants. The fact is that the seedlings can be damaged when they reach the soil surface. The germination phase is considered to be the period when the first unfolded green leaf appears.
- Tillering. This phase occurs when the plants begin to develop their first side shoots. They look like leaves. The process of tillering differs from branching, as it occurs on a part of the stem located one to two centimeters deep underground. Its essence is as follows: on the stem there are close nodes, from which roots and lateral shoots appear, each of them forms the same thing, and this continues many times. But everything happens underground, and the place where the side shoots emerge is called the tillering node.
- Output into the tube. This phase occurs when the stem begins to grow, and the location of the first node is one and a half to two centimeters above the ground surface. The internode grows first from below, almost at the same time as the rudimentary ear. The next one always grows much longer than the previous one, so the last internode is the longest in length. Having reached the boot phase, the plants need increased nutrition and water, since a rudimentary stalk grows inside the spikelets. This process will end when the stems are formed.
- Heading is the process of throwing out spikelets. It begins with the appearance of the tips of the inflorescences. The early maturity of a particular variety is judged by the time of heading.
- Bloom. On this basis, all grains are divided into self- and cross-pollinated. The flowering of the ear begins in its middle part and spreads in both directions. In breads with panicles, the upper part blooms first. This phase in the life of plants is a turning point, towards the end of which the vegetative organs stop growing.
- Maturation. This phase is characterized by a decrease in the influx of substances called “plastic”. In seeds they become a reserve form. There is a gradual separation of the seed from the plant. Their humidity during this period depends on the surrounding space. During the day, the seeds become dry, and in the evening, when the heat subsides, they become moisturized.
“Selection and seed production of leguminous and cereal crops: status, problems and solutions”
IN AND.
Zotikov, member of Leningrad corr.
RAS, Doctor of Agriculture Sciences, Professor Leguminous and cereal crops are of great food, feed and agrotechnical importance. The gene pool of grain legumes and their wild relatives, contained in the VIR collection, represents a representative sample of the world diversity of legumes, consumed mainly for grain. The collection, created over 84 years, includes more than 47.3 thousand specimens, represented by unique expedition collections, local varieties, breeding material, and varieties collected from all over the world. For production purposes, mainly peas, soybeans, beans, lentils, vetch, lupine, broad beans and, more recently, chickpeas are used.
Among the group of cereal crops, rice, common buckwheat, and millet are the most widespread in the world. Other millet crops are used to a lesser extent: chumiza, mogar, paiza and pearl millet.
Everyone knows that leguminous crops are valuable in terms of protein content - 20-27%, 8 essential amino acids (lysine, tryptophan, methionine, etc.), rich in microelements and minerals. In addition, leguminous crops are of great agronomic importance: due to symbiotic nitrogen fixation, they enrich the soil with available forms of nitrogen and, in general, are one of the best precursors for most crop rotation crops. An important role belongs to leguminous crops in the feed production system. Pea grain contains from 100 to 300 grams of crude protein per 1 feed unit.
The group of cereal crops is of particular importance in nutrition, especially dietary, and can be used for feed purposes in poultry farming, primarily this applies to millet-like cereals: chumise, mogaru, paiza and pearl millet. The last two crops are suitable for the production of hay, haylage and silage.
In the Russian Federation, peas and soybeans are of greatest production importance. Russia ranks second in the world after Canada in the production of peas for grain purposes, accounting for 10 to 20% of world production (10 million tons). The sown area in our country varies from year to year and averages 1.5-1.7 million hectares.
Soybean is even more valuable nutritionally, although in terms of its use it is classified as an industrial crop. Soybean grain contains up to 50% protein, 20-23% oil; soybean products are used in the food industry to make “white petals” and as fillers in various products (about 150 dishes). The role of culture in the production of concentrated and combined feed is great. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the area sown with soybeans has increased sharply over the past 5 years and reached 3 million hectares (3083 thousand hectares in 2020) and exceeded the total area sown with all leguminous crops (2162 thousand hectares). The growth of acreage under peas and soybeans is due to the use in production of new varieties adapted to the natural and climatic conditions of various regions of the country. Effective breeding work of scientific institutions contributed to a stable increase in productivity, improved grain quality, and an increase in gross yields to 3336.8 thousand tons of legume grain and 4344 thousand tons of soybeans.
More than 40 scientific institutions included in the RAS system, the Ministry of Science and Education, and the Ministry of Agriculture made a significant contribution to the creation of new competitive varieties of leguminous and cereal crops.
The State Register of Breeding Achievements for 2020 includes: a total of 213 varieties of leguminous crops (without soybeans) of domestic and 40 foreign selection, 105 domestic varieties of buckwheat, millet and 5 foreign ones. For example: the share of domestic varieties for peas is 77.7%, for buckwheat – 98.15.
The State Register of Breeding Achievements included 68 varieties of selection of the Federal Research Center for grain legumes and cereals for 9 grain legumes, incl. 18 varieties of peas, 11 beans, 8 soybeans, 10 spring vetch, 5 lentils.
Varieties of foreign selection, both for leguminous crops and soybeans, did not have significant advantages; moreover, they were inferior in terms of quality indicators, productivity, resistance to stress factors, protein content, ripening and harvesting time.
Pea breeding in recent years has been distinguished by the creation of fundamentally new morphotypes. More than 60% of the varieties are short-stemmed, determinate, with a mustache-type leaf, with non-shedding seeds. All of them are distinguished by the combination of a number of recessive genes, which sharply increases the requirements for their seed production. The complex genetic basis of such varieties increases the possibility of biological contamination, which requires more frequent variety changes and variety renewal. The most important task of primary seed production in this case is the accelerated production of elite seeds by simplifying primary seed production schemes in combination with methods of rapid seed propagation and modern methods of preserving the type of variety. Currently, when producing original seeds, in parallel with the State testing system, it is advisable to carry out seed production of a promising variety, which will allow, immediately after its inclusion in the State Register of Breeding Achievements approved for use, to have such a quantity of seeds that would provide 10-20% of the structure of sowing crops under this variety areas in a particular region. Only in this case will seed production occupy a central place in increasing the productivity of agrocenoses.
It should be noted that the productivity potential and especially the quality of grain legumes and soybean products is far from being fully realized in production. The main reasons are the slow introduction of new intensive varieties (varietal change and variety renewal), the lack of specialized equipment for the timely implementation of agrotechnical techniques for sowing, care and high-quality harvesting.
Taking into account significant climate changes associated with increased temperature, aridity, and more frequent extreme events, it is necessary to take the right approach to the selection of crops and varieties, and the development of varietal technologies, especially for early ripening and drought-resistant crops. It is advisable to expand the area under crops such as beans, the export of which accounts for about 75% of consumption, chickpeas, which are not only drought-resistant, but also heat-tolerant, china - a valuable crop with high feeding qualities, lentils - an original Russian crop with a high content of easily accessible proteins .
Diversification of leguminous crops in crop production will significantly improve the provision of the population and livestock with plant protein and will create favorable conditions for other crop rotation crops, especially winter wheat.
Cereal crops, buckwheat and millet, despite the small sown areas, play a significant role in the formation of the population’s food basket. Their insufficient production in some years is accompanied by a sharp increase in market prices and rush demand (2010).
In recent years, the area sown with buckwheat has increased to 1,692 thousand hectares. The acreage under millet remains more stable. They average 500-600 thousand hectares and only in 2013 increased to 826 thousand hectares. However, their decline in the period from 2020 to 2019 led to a jump in millet prices and a shortage of seeds. Both buckwheat and millet are characterized by high variability in the gross grain harvest and virtually no dynamics of yield growth. It varies from year to year for buckwheat 10-12 c/ha, for millet 12-15 c/ha. A similar situation is observed in China, the EU countries and neighboring Ukraine. The main reasons for the low productivity of these crops are: non-compliance with cultivation technologies, especially harvesting times, which is accompanied by large losses; the use of intensive indeterminate varieties with long and non-simultaneous ripening; a large proportion of mass reproduction seeds in varietal crops.
In the State Register of varieties approved for use in 2020, there are 52 varieties of buckwheat and 58 varieties of millet, but in production, up to 50% of the varieties approved for use 20-30 years ago are used in the structure of sown areas. Saving money on variety changing leads to disastrous results. The State Register includes 5 varieties of buckwheat selected by the Federal Research Center for Grain Culture with a determinant type of growth, ripening together, with an increased (32-34 g) weight of 1000 grains, a high yield of cereals (70-74%) and a protein content of 13-16%.
Leading farms in the Oryol region consistently receive buckwheat yields at the level of 25-30 c/ha. A similar level of productivity was obtained when testing new buckwheat varieties in Switzerland in the period 2016-2018. In general, in recent years, the Federal Scientific Center ZBK has created a series of high-yielding varieties of buckwheat and millet, adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, capable of producing high grain yields not only at variety plots, but also in production conditions. The main factor in increasing yields and stabilizing the production of buckwheat and millet grain is the creation and accelerated use in production of new early-ripening and high-yielding varieties adapted to the specific natural and climatic conditions of the country's regions. It is necessary to re-equip institutions with selection and seed-growing equipment, to create conditions for the development of real industrial seed production. All these measures will ensure increased yields, improved seed quality and economic efficiency in the production of these crops.
During the presentation of the state of production of leguminous and cereal crops, attention was repeatedly focused on issues of selection and seed production. In conclusion, a scheme for the selection and production of original seeds is presented, which is typical for all scientific institutions, but has some features characteristic of specific leguminous and cereal crops.
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Lupine is a promising crop
G.L. Yagovenko, All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Lupine - branch of the Federal Scientific Center "VIK named after. V.R. Williams"
Lupine culture is a unique multifunctional crop that has enormous biological - environment-forming, soil-improving, resource-energy-saving and environmental, as well as economic potential in agricultural production as a valuable fodder, food and green manure crop.
Cultivated lupine species are of fundamental importance for increasing the production of high-protein and energy-rich feed
, development of ecological farming, increasing the sustainability of the functioning of the agro-sphere as the most important component of the biosphere.
In symbiosis with Rhizobium lupini
, lupine is capable of accumulating from 150 to 400 kg
of atmospheric nitrogen
and therefore becomes practically independent of nitrogen reserves in the soil. In addition, the root system of lupine is capable of decomposing soil phosphates that are difficult for other plants to access, which makes it possible to meet the need for phosphorus nutrition and improve the phosphate regime of the soil and extract macro- and microelements from the subsoil. Lupine, like no other crop, can do without fertilizers, which gives it significant advantages over other leguminous crops. Plowing the green mass of lupine is equivalent to applying 30-40 t/ha of organic fertilizers, which significantly increases the level of soil fertility.
The culture has a number of positive features that are interesting for production.
It is a good precursor for crops such as winter and spring grain crops, potatoes, and corn.
To obtain satisfactory yields, it is enough to use mineral fertilizers in volumes of P30K60, for high yields - P60K90 of the active substance. Due to its biological characteristics and having a high environment-forming ability, lupine in mixed crops is a cenosis-forming crop, capable of increasing the productivity of arable land by 1.5-2 times without the use of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers compared to single-species crops and obtaining a balanced protein directly in field of environmentally friendly products.
Technology successfully applied in production
cultivation of white lupine in single-species and mixed crops;
resource-saving technology for cultivating white lupine mixed with cereals. These technologies allow you to manage the harvest, the quality of crop components, increase the yield per hectare of arable land without the cost of mineral fertilizers and herbicides, as a result, the product yield is 35-40 c/ha of protein-balanced grain fodder directly in the field or 400-600 c of high-protein green masses for preparing grain haylage and silage. The above technologies ensure the production of environmentally friendly feed and food grains of lupine
, spring wheat, barley and oats, suitable for their use in dietary products.
The protein yield
of feed products is 8.4-13.1 c/ha, and the metabolic energy indicator in the grain mixture yield is 102-106 GJ/ha.
These multifunctional biogeocenotic and economically valuable properties of the biological potential of lupine are realized in agricultural practice through the variety and their system formations - lupine or lupine-grass biocenoses.
Given the current pressure of Western sanctions and resource shortages for many agricultural enterprises and farms, this technology makes it possible to produce sufficient quantities of cheap and protein-balanced concentrated, coarse and juicy (grain haylage and silage) feed.
Lupine is one of the powerful reserves in solving the problem of easily digestible protein for livestock products. Modern varieties of lupine contain on average 32-46% of high-quality easily digestible protein in the grain and 18-23% of the dry matter of green mass, which is used as animal feed both in freshly cut form and for the preparation of roughage and succulent feed.
This makes it possible to use lupine as a protein supplement, balanced in amino acid composition, in the diets of all types of farm animals, poultry and fish and completely replace expensive soybean and sunflower meal in feed rations.
1 kg of lupine grain contains 3 times more protein
, than in cereal grains, and 1.5 times more than in peas. In addition, lupine also occupies a leading position in the content of the most valuable essential amino acids (lysine, methionine, cystine, tryptophan). In addition, the production of 1 quintal of lupine protein in terms of energy costs is 1.5-2.0 times cheaper than that of other leguminous crops and 3.5-4.0 times less compared to cereal forage crops.
Per 1 feed unit, the grain of narrow-leaved and yellow lupine contains 265 and 324 g of digestible protein, respectively, which is 3.5 and 4.3 times more than 1 kg of oats and 2.3...2.8 times more compared with the required scientifically based zootechnical norm in cattle diets.
The green mass of lupine also contains an excess of digestible protein by 70...80% compared to the zootechnical norm, while the green mass of oats and corn in the milky-waxy ripeness phase is provided with only 60...83% of digestible protein.
Lupine protein is of high quality and digestibility, and due to the absence of trypsin inhibitors, it can be used as feed for any type of animal without prior heat treatment.
Nutritional Indicators
when using lupine in the creation of high-quality feed and raw material conveyors for the production of high-quality bulk feed and high-protein feed additives, they amount to 10.0-10.5 MJ OE per 1 kg of dry matter.
The production and use of lupine milk for feeding calves as a substitute for whole milk is economically profitable and accessible to any agricultural producer. Lupine milk allows you to save up to 200 kg of whole cow's milk per calf.
When lupine is grown using herbicide-free technology and without mineral fertilizers, lupine grain is truly environmentally friendly and can be used as an alternative to soybean as a protein additive in many food products, including for the production of dietary and therapeutic products.
Currently, three types of lupine are cultivated in Russia: white, narrow-leaved and yellow. The most widespread is white lupine, which is characterized by a high content of protein (up to 45%) and fat (10 - 12%). This species produces the highest yield - up to 70 c/ha, but is demanding on growing conditions. The second place is occupied by narrow-leaved lupine, which has a slightly lower protein content (up to 38%), with a maximum yield of up to 45 c/ha. Yellow lupine has the highest protein content of any known crop (up to 53%).
Lupine is able to grow in low-fertility, sandy soils with high acidity, where other legumes cannot grow. When cultivated as a green manure crop, lupine plays the role of a phytosanitary and increases the antiphytopathogenic potential of the soil. After plowing lupine biomass, the damage to grain crops by root rot, including winter crops by snow mold, decreases, and the number of antagonistic microflora decreases.
The use of lupine for food purposes is now becoming decisive in conditions of an acute shortage of environmentally friendly products. At the World Congress on the Problems of Using Plant Proteins for Food and Feed Purposes (USA, 1991), lupine was characterized as an important reserve of high-quality protein compounds.
Lupine flour and protein paste are used in sausages, confectionery products, cereals, puddings, sauces and other food products.
Lupine is a promising type of raw material for the production of dietary and therapeutic products. Lupine-based foods are produced for diabetics. A characteristic feature of lupine flour is the complete absence of prolamines, one of the components of gluten proteins in grain crops. In this regard, lupine is a valuable source of raw materials for creating gluten-free food products with dietary, therapeutic and prophylactic properties.
Due to the high content of ß-carotene in lupine seeds, it is a valuable raw material for the creation of therapeutic and prophylactic products with radioprotective properties
, increasing the body’s resistance to the effects of radionuclides.
Based on rich genetic resources, 38 original varieties of white, yellow and narrow-leaved lupine were created over the period 2017-2019. The State Register of Breeding Achievements approved for use on the territory of the Russian Federation includes 4 varieties of lupine for fodder use: the white lupine variety Pilgrim (Patent No. 10702 on November 19, 2019), 2 varieties of narrow-leaved lupine - Belorozovy 144 (Patent No. 10701 dated November 19, 2019) , Bryansk stern (Patent No. 9076 dated May 12, 2017); variety of yellow lupine Bulat (Patent No. 9294 dated October 25, 2017).
Currently, the area under cultivation of three cultivated species of lupine (white, narrow-leaved, yellow) is about 150 thousand hectares for seeds and about 50 thousand hectares for green mass and green manure. The geography of lupine sowing is expanding - in addition to the traditionally lupine-cultivating regions of the Central and Central Black Earth Federal Districts, in recent years it has been actively grown in the Urals, Siberia, the Far East, the North-West of the Russian Federation, the Kaliningrad region, the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan.
The popularity of lupine culture is also growing abroad - Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan are actively importing seeds, and China and France have shown some interest in lupine. This is due to the fact that lupine, due to the amino acid composition of the protein and its quantitative content, in the absence of protease inhibitors (available in soybeans), is a serious competitor to soybeans, which is actively promoted in Europe by the American lobby. In Russia, the popularity of lupine is growing because lupine is an import-substituting crop for obtaining high-quality feed protein.
Distinctive features, types and characteristics of legumes
The group of grain legumes includes legumes that are cultivated exclusively to obtain dry seed. It's no secret that the main source of vegetable protein is legumes. They also serve as the main addition to the diet of farm animals and birds. Ripe pea seeds contain about 30% protein, chickpeas - 25%, forage legumes up to 28%, beans up to 32%.
Legumes do not include legumes such as green peas and green beans. Legumes used to produce oil - soybeans, peanuts - also do not belong to the group of legumes.
Pulses include the following crops:
Beans (regular, moon, red, holly), peas, beans, adzuki, urd, lentils, Bambara groundnuts, lupine.
Few people know that peas were cultivated by the first people; this is one of the ancient crops. It is widely used in agriculture, as part of concentrated feed. Pea grains absorb a fairly impressive amount of protein. The varietal list of peas is varied; one of the most common is the sowing pea. This plant is cultivated in a number of countries to meet the needs of not only humans, but also animals.
Peas are a moisture-loving crop, giving a good harvest on soils fertilized with lime, with sufficient aeration. Does not tolerate heavy, loamy, waterlogged soils. Peas grow well next to spring cereals.
Planted peas can be destroyed by weeds, so treatment against weeds is mandatory and must be carried out according to schedule. Any row crop will serve as a favorable predecessor for peas. Peas are high-yielding leguminous crops; if agricultural practices are followed correctly, they will yield about 45 centners of grain per hectare.
Beans (except green beans) are also legumes and include more than two hundred species. Cultivated beans are cultivated in different countries, including Russia. Our country cultivates common beans, tepary, moon-shaped, angular, multi-flowered.
Chickpeas are the most drought-resistant leguminous crop of all representatives of this group. Chickpea grains contain about 30% protein and are widely used as an additive to meat products. Eastern countries use chickpeas to make confectionery and oriental sweets.
Lentils, like peas, originate from ancient times. The ancient Egyptians cultivated lentils and maize as their main source of food. Today, lentils have found their use in many countries in Europe, Asia, and America. Varieties of edible lentils, namely large-grain ones, occupy a leading place among grain legumes in terms of nutritional value.
Small grain lentils are used to prepare concentrated feed for livestock, and the straw part of the plant is used as bedding.
The next representative of the group of legumes are beans - the crop is grown both for human consumption and for animal feed. Among the legumes, fava beans and fodder beans are common. The latter are smaller in size and are used as feed only for animals.
Grain legumes also include herbaceous crops, for example, lupine and vetch. High-protein plants produce not only seeds, but also green mass, which is also used as animal feed.
Growing grains and leguminous crops: crop protection
Immediately after sowing, before the emergence of grain legumes, targeted herbicides are applied to the soil. After the emergence of grains and legumes, graminicides are used; they are used because legumes are very sensitive to the presence of weeds.
So that the plant is not damaged by insects, and legumes have plenty of pests. Farmers resort to insecticides. The greatest danger comes from aphids and codling moths, locusts, wireworms, root weevils, and weevils. These pests can cause irreparable harm to the plant. Therefore, it is important to identify them in time and destroy them.
Crops of legumes can be subject not only to attacks by insects, but also to diseases. To protect crops of peas, beans, chickpeas and other legumes, a number of biological and chemical plant protection measures should be used. Maintaining the correct sequence of sowing crops and treating plants with protective agents will help avoid the death of legumes.
Of primary importance is the treatment of crops intended for collecting seeds and harvesting for grain and long-term storage.
Care for legumes also includes measures to treat plants with growth regulators and root application of microelements.
