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Lesson summary on MHC 'Ancient Rome' grade 10

10th grade.

Lesson objectives:

1. To introduce students to the architecture of Ancient Rome, types of buildings and their purpose, building materials and innovations in construction.

2. Continue to develop students’ cognitive abilities, the ability to work with sources of information, and highlight the main thing. Open the mind.

3. To cultivate interest, a sense of respect and admiration for ancient Roman construction technology and architecture, which had a great influence on Western European architecture.

Lesson type:

lesson-lecture.

Decor:

Presentation.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

Greeting students, emotional mood for the lesson.

- Guys, today in my lesson you will learn a lot of interesting and new things. You will leave the lesson with a replenished knowledge base.

P. Introduction of the lesson topic.

And so guys, the topic of our lesson is “Architecture of Ancient Rome” ( slide 1

). Think and tell me what we should learn in class, what should we get acquainted with?

(students' answers).

In this lesson we will get acquainted with the architecture of Ancient Rome, types of buildings and their purpose, building materials and innovations in architecture.

III. Learning new material.

Teacher's opening speech.

The history of Ancient Rome spans more than 12 centuries. She left humanity a rich cultural and artistic heritage: grandiose architectural ensembles, new types of structures that amaze with the perfection of engineering technology, realistic sculptural portraits, wonderful frescoes, mosaics, works of decorative and applied art and much more.

Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century. BC e. made a colossal revolution in the life of Rome. Proud and unyielding Rome recognized the greatness of the cultural traditions of Hellas. The art of Ancient Rome not only inherited, but also creatively developed the best achievements of the ancient Greek masters, creating its own, original style and unique personality.

In the development of the artistic culture of Ancient Rome, three main periods are distinguished:

1. Etruscan art (7th-4th centuries BC)

2. Art of the Roman Republic (4th-1st centuries BC)

3 Art of the Roman Empire (1st - 4th centuries AD)

Guys, we will get acquainted with the architecture of Ancient Rome of each period, and we will dwell in more detail on the great monuments of Roman architecture. As you study new material, each of you will work with the table ( slide 2)

filling it out.

An important role in the formation of Roman statehood and culture belonged to the Etruscans (tribes living on the territory of modern Tuscany). They were experienced farmers and skilled craftsmen. They built cities that had a regular layout, paved streets), a good sewage system, many temples on stone foundations and palaces. Residential buildings and palaces had a good, comfortable layout: recreation rooms, for conversations, entertainment, and household purposes. Inside the house there were courtyards - gardens with benches and a fountain, where the owner invited friends. Temples were built in honor of the gods, for sacrifices to the gods and rulers. The Etruscans created their own order - majestic and monumental. From the 4th century BC e. The Forum became the center of business and social life in Rome, and a message was prepared for us about it (student’s full name).

(Hearing a message) (Slide 3)

Unfortunately, the buildings of the first period have not survived; they were destroyed or half-destroyed by earthquakes, natural elements, or simply time.

From the Republican period of the history of Ancient Rome, only a few architectural monuments have also been preserved. Architectural orders were also used in construction during this period: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. During this period, rectangular temples were built, they used porticos like the Greeks, but unlike the Greek ones, they were grander and were erected on high podiums - a rectangular platform with a staircase. Soft volcanic tuff, later burnt brick, and marble were used in construction. In the 2nd century BC. e. Roman builders invented a new material - concrete, which caused the widespread innovation of arched-vaulted structures that transformed all ancient architecture. In Roman temple architecture, a type of round temple was introduced - the rotunda. This was one of the oldest Roman temples - the temple of the goddess Vesta (hearth), located in the forum (slide 4).

Various arches and arched structures were a characteristic element of Roman architecture (slide 5).

— Guys, remember what was the main element in Greek architecture? (colonnade). But the Romans did not abandon columns; they decorated public buildings.

(Slide 6

) The theater in Pompeii with 1,700 seats was intended to host various performances. It was the first theater in Rome built of stone.

The Romans built engineering structures that were new at that time: water pipelines (aqueducts) and huge stone bridges (viaducts), inside which were hidden lead and clay pipes supplying water to the city. Almost all cities of Rome received technical and drinking water, which came from mountain springs using aqueducts (Slide 7)

Was the triumphal arch a specific Roman type of structure? What do you think its purpose was? (Glorify, perpetuate the military and imperial glory of the emperor) (Slide 8).

In the middle of the 1st century BC. e. The first majestic marble buildings appear in Rome. Yu. Caesar ordered the construction of a new forum in Rome. Caesar's Basilica was built there - a three-nave rectangular building intended for court hearings, trade transactions and public meetings.

A remarkable achievement of Roman construction technology of the 3rd period was the building of the temple of all gods - the Pantheon (slide 9).

(Listening to the student's message).

During the Roman Empire, palaces and temples continued to be built, as well as triumphal arches in honor of emperors and their victories in war. Successive emperors continued to decorate the Roman Forum. The most beautiful was the forum under the emperor Trojan. The landmark of the forum was Trojan's Column ( slide 10).

(Listening to the student's message).

Another of the remarkable Roman buildings of this period are the baths, necessary in everyday life (Slide 11)

(Student message).

Roman architecture always sought to satisfy the practical needs of people. The construction of roads by the Romans still inspires admiration. They had a domestic purpose, that is, they served as a means of communication and unification of people living on the vast territory of the Roman Empire. Roads played a strategic role during numerous military campaigns. The famous Apian Way (slide 12)

paved with crushed stone and concrete slabs with the addition of volcanic heat for strength, it has survived to this day. Named after the builder-censor Apius Claudius Caecus.

In the 1st century, Emperor Vespasian, who came to power, built an amphitheater known throughout the world as the Colosseum (Slide 13).

I invite you to view the presentation further and answer the questions that are on your desks.

(View presentation slides 14 - 24

). Conversation on issues.

1. How did Vespostimian decide to perpetuate his name?

2. What did he name his building?

3. How many people could the Colosseum accommodate and how long did it take for the public to fill the hall?

4. How did the principle of dividing people based on class operate in the theater?

5. What was the main spectacle at the Colosseum?

6. What are the dimensions of the Colosseum?

IV. Reinforcing what has been learned in the lesson.

And so guys, you will now check the table that you worked on while studying the new material (Self-test using the sample, slides 25-27).

-If anyone has any shortcomings, correct them; if anyone didn’t have time to write them down, add them.

— How did you cope with the task? Why?

Now let's review what you learned in class today? What did you like? What do you remember? Tell me what can be seen today from elements of Roman architecture (arches, vaults)

Conclusion.

Roman architecture left a rich heritage for posterity.

Student assessment

for messages, for work in class.

House task:

textbook pages 86-94, read, answer questions, prepare reports about the Roman theater.

Practical work on the topic “Ancient Rome”.

PRACTICAL WORK NO.

TOPIC: Ancient Rome.

Target:

creating students' ideas about ancient Greek civilization.

When studying the section “Ancient Rome”, it is necessary to achieve the following didactic objectives:

a) educational :

— introduce the natural and geographical features of Ancient Rome and the main events in its history;

— contribute to the formation of an idea of mythology as a source of historical information;

- lead students to an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and patterns in the historical past.

b) developing:

-development of students' memory;

-development of skills to overcome difficulties when solving historical problems;

-development of students' curiosity;

— develop the ability to compare information, find similarities and differences;

-development of skills to look for answers to questions that arise using a textbook and other sources of information, including additional literature, the Internet;

— improve the ability to navigate historical space using a map.

c) educational:

— fostering a responsible attitude towards educational work;

— cultivate interest in the historical past and cultural heritage of the peoples of the world;

- cultivate a sense of responsibility and independence, focus on spiritual and moral values: patriotism, mutual assistance and friendship.

Read the text and complete the tasks.

Ancient Rome

Royal Rome.

Legends connect the founding of Rome with fugitives from Troy, taken by the Achaean Greeks. The noble Trojan Aeneas wandered for a long time after the fall of the city, then landed at the mouth of the Tiber and became the king of the Latins - a people in which the Trojans and local residents united. Aeneas' descendant Romulus founded it in 754 - 753. BC. the city of Rome and became its first king. Under him, the population of Rome consisted of his companions - young men. By cunning they kidnapped the girls of the Sabine tribe. The kidnapped women reconciled their fathers and husbands. The Romans and Sabines united into a single community.

After Romulus, six more kings ruled Rome. The Sabine Numa Pompilius reigned for 43 years and became famous for his love of peace. But his successors Tull Gostilni and Ankh Marcius launched an attack on neighboring lands. The next king, Tarquin the Ancient, was an Etruscan. Under him, Rome grew significantly.

To make important decisions, the kings convened a national assembly. It elected a king, adopted a law granting him imperium (power), and the decisions of the people's assembly were approved by the senate (council of elders). The descendants of the first members of the Roman community were called patricians (from the Latin pacr - “father”). This was the Roman aristocracy. The plebeians settled in Rome later than the patricians and initially were not part of the community, did not participate in the popular assembly and did not have the right to land. The sixth Etruscan king of Rome, Servius Tullius, included the plebeians in the Roman community. They had to serve in the army. But they never learned the right to participate in the national assembly and other habits. The seventh king, Tarquinius, famous for his cruelty, was overthrown in 510 BC.

Management in the Roman Republic. The struggle of patricians and plebeians.

After the overthrow of the tsarist government, the Roman state finally acquired the features of polis administration. The time after the overthrow of Tarquin and before the establishment of imperial power is called the period of the Roman Republic.

The people's assembly was considered the highest body of the state. It could declare war or make peace, adopt and repeal laws, and elect all senior officials. But not a single law could be adopted by the people's assembly without its discussion in the Senate. The Senate consisted of 300 people.

The state was directly governed by officials who were elected by the people's assembly for a period of one year. The chief of these officials were the consuls. Two consuls governed the state, commanded troops, judged citizens and compiled lists of members of the Senate. In case of emergency, a dictator was appointed for 6 months, who had unlimited rights, and the consuls were subordinate to him.

Only patricians were elected to all government positions. They also captured most of the former royal lands. From these lands, the patricians provided plots to the plebeians for a fee. However, the plebeians fought hard for their rights. Over time, they began to make up the majority of the Roman army. The patricians were forced to make concessions. The position of people's tribune was established. The plebeians elected two tribunes of the people, who could suspend decisions of the Senate and the People's Assembly (veto power).

The plebeians also demanded that laws be written down to prevent abuses by the patricians. After much discussion, the laws were engraved on 12 copper boards (tables) and put on public display. The laws of the 12 tables confirmed private ownership of land and all other property of citizens.

In the middle of the 4th century. BC. At the proposal of the people's tribunes Sextius and Licinius, laws were passed to allocate plots to the plebeians from lands annexed by that time to the Roman Republic as a result of conquests. Another law determined that from now on one of the consuls must necessarily be a plebeian. Roman citizens could no longer be turned into slaves for debt. The struggle of the plebeians with the patricians was stopped by the adoption at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. a law according to which plebescites (decisions of plebeian assemblies) were binding on all citizens, including patricians.

The patricians and plebeians ceased to quarrel with each other. Their elite united into the class of senators - members of the Senate. Average farmers, traders and generally wealthy people were called horsemen. The rest of the poor townspeople made up the plebs (in the new meaning of the word). All citizens of Rome, regardless of position, were considered equal before the law.

Roman conquests.

In the VI-V centuries. BC. Rome begins to conquer neighboring territories. The basis of Rome's strength was the army - legions, consisting of all citizens - members of the polis. The Romans managed to repel the invasion of the Gauls (Celts), who poured in in the 4th century. BC. to Italy. They gradually conquered Italy and by the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. became its complete masters.

The most difficult test for the early Roman Republic was the 2nd Punic War with Carthage, a Phoenician state in North Africa. Having been defeated in the long 1st Punic War (the Romans called the Carthaginians Punes), having lost the fleet and possessions in Sicily and Sardinia, Carthage did not come to terms with this. The Carthaginians captured part of Iberia (modern Spain). In 218 BC. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal made an unprecedented campaign in Italy on his leave, crossing the Alpine mountains. He defeated the Romans in northern Italy, and in the spring of 217 BC. on the shore of Lake Trasimene he defeated them again. However, Hannibal's forces were melting, and the Roman army was growing stronger. In 216 BC. The 87,000-strong Roman army met Hannibal's 54,000-strong army near the town of Cannae. The Romans struck at Hannibal's weak center, but were drawn into a pocket between his strong flanks. The trapped Romans tried to resist, but the battle soon turned into massacres.

It seemed. Rome cannot escape destruction. But emergency measures were taken and the war continued. The Romans began to win victories. The young talented commander of Rome, Publius Cornelius Scipio, conquered the Carthaginian possessions in Iberia. In 204 BC. Scipio landed in Africa. Hannibal was forced to leave Italy. In 202 BC. Scipio defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. Carthage made peace with Rome, accepting all the conditions of the victors. During the 3rd Punic War in the 2nd century. BC. Carthage was destroyed, and then Macedonia and Greece and a number of other lands were captured.

The Romans turned the conquered lands into provinces - “the estates of the Roman people.” They were headed by governors from among the officials of Rome. The local population was taxed and part of their land was taken away from them. In an effort to divide the inhabitants of the provinces, the Romans used the “divide and conquer” method. Cities and communities loyal to them received advantages and benefits, while others were deprived of them.

The consequence of long wars, which enriched some of the Romans and ruined others, was the weakening of the army: impoverished citizens could no longer arm themselves at their own expense, and many rich people did not want to shed blood in battles. Roman commander consul Gaius Marius at the end of the 2nd century. BC. was the first to recruit volunteers—Roman citizens and allies of Rome—to serve in the legions. The soldiers received weapons, pay for their service, and after their completion they were promised plots of land. The combat effectiveness of the Roman army again sharply increased. But having lost direct contact with the Roman community, the warriors turned into executors of the will of their commanders.

Roman society during the Republic.

A strong family was considered the basis of Rome's strength. This head was the sovereign master of his household. The younger ones unquestioningly obeyed the elders, the elders took care of the younger ones. A woman-mother enjoyed great rights and respect.

After the Punic Wars (the period of the Late Roman Republic), the “corruption” of the virtuous morals of the Romans became noticeable. The thirst for enrichment was the main goal of part of the top of Roman society. New conquests promised them new income. In contrast, the poor had little interest in conquest. After all, while they served in the army, their farms went bankrupt, their families became poor.

The Romans of the Late Republic were more educated than their ancestors. Many of them knew Greek, and their children were raised by Greek teachers. The Romans adopted from the Greeks a passion for luxury and feasts. “Damage” of morals was observed even among plebeians. Slave labor became increasingly important.

Civil wars.

In the 1st century BC. Civil wars began in Rome. Power was seized by the dictator Cornelius Sulla, who carried out the mass extermination of his opponents in Rome. Then he left for the war in Asia Minor. Supporters of democratic rule, led by Gaius Marius, gathered an army and in 87 BC. took Rome, killing Sulla's followers there. Marius restored the former republican order. But he soon died, and Sulla returned to Italy. After a two-year war, he in 82 AD. took Rome, destroying hundreds of his opponents.

An important event during the Late Roman Republic was the slave uprising led by Spartacus, a native of Thrace. It began with a speech in 74 BC. gladiators and soon spread throughout Italy. The army of Spartacus, to whom thousands of slaves fled, inflicted a number of defeats on the legions. With great difficulty, the Romans under the leadership of Licinius Crassus managed to defeat it in 71 BC. rebels.

Civil wars and uprisings of the first half of the 1st century. BC. led to the weakening of republican institutions of power. In 60 BC. A triumvirate agreement was concluded between the most influential politicians of Rome - Gnaeus Pompey, Licinismus Crassus and Julius Caesar. The Senate was pushed out of power by the triumvirs. Soon Gaius Julius Caesar became governor of the provinces in Gaul, where he became famous as a commander, having conquered in 58 - 51. BC e. Transalpine Gaul to the Rhine River. In 53 BC. e. Crassus died in the war, and Pompey entered into an agreement with the Senate and opposed Caesar. In 49 BC. a new civil war began. Caesar defeated Pompey and became the sole ruler of Rome. His power was approaching that of the king. However, in 44 BC. e. he was stabbed to death in the Senate by the conspirators.

Birth of the Roman Empire.

After the death of Caesar, a struggle developed both between supporters and opponents of the republic, and between contenders for supreme power. One of these applicants was Caesar's great-nephew Gaius Octavian. He entered into an agreement with Markus Antony, assistant to Julius Caesar. Together they defeated in 42 BC. e. supporters of the republic. Octavian received the heart of the Roman Empire under his power, and Antony the east. A clash between them was inevitable. Octavian strengthened his power in Rome, Antony married the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra. The war between Octavian and Antony ended in 30 BC. the death of Anthony and Cleopatra and the capture of Egypt by the Romans. In 29 BC. e. Octavian received the title of emperor from the Senate and the People's Assembly. He headed the Roman state until the end of his life (14 AD). The emperor, who received the title Augustus (in Latin, sacred, exalted), became the head of the Senate, as a people's tribune had the right of veto on all decisions of the Senate, people's assemblies and other government bodies. He commanded the army for life.

Periods of principate and dominance.

With the accession of Augustus, the period of the Principate began in the history of Rome (27 BC - 193 AD). Formally, republican institutions were preserved - the Senate, people's assemblies, and other elected bodies. In fact, power belongs to the emperor and his officials. The successors of Octavian Augustus (Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Claudius) became famous for their terror against all those dissatisfied with the new order. They themselves also died at the hands of the conspirators. By the end of the 1st century. AD the election of emperors was actually in the hands of the troops. The commanders, relying on their legions, fought for power. As a result, the Romans began to suffer defeats in wars with their neighbors. The situation returned to normal under Emperor Trajan (98-117 AD), who ruled taking into account the opinion of the Senate. Trajan waged constant wars in order to restore the shaky prestige of Roman weapons. The war in Dacia was long and difficult. In 113, Trajan began a war with the Parthian kingdom, which had been successfully resisting Rome in the East for several centuries. The Romans occupied Armenia, Mesopotamia and reached the Persian Gulf. But the emperor’s armies also began to revolt. In 117 Trajan was forced to withdraw his legions from Mesopotamia. He died soon after. Trajan's successor, Emperor Hadrian, abandoned conquest politics and sought to strengthen the internal position of the empire. The state of the state was quite stable for a long time, which is why it is called the “golden age” of the Roman Empire.

In III and. The Roman Empire again entered a period of crisis. Its provinces were often ruled by independent rulers. Germanic and other barbarian tribes invaded the territory of the state. Only towards the end of the 3rd century. the situation began to change. The last stage in the history of the Roman state began, known as the period of dominance (284-476). During this period, republican authorities were transformed into ordinary state institutions, their members became officials subordinate to the emperor. The emperors themselves turned into rulers similar to oriental despots.

A powerful bureaucratic apparatus was created. The state actively intervened in the economy. By the end of the 4th century. a significant part of the land suitable for agriculture was concentrated in the hands of large landowners - magnates. Peasants fled to them from state lands to escape taxes. In the land of magnates, they became colonists. The tycoon gave them a house and land. For this, the colonel gave him a share of the harvest. Slaves also began to be converted into colons. Colon, unlike the slave, was interested in the results of his labor and worked much better.

At the beginning of the period of dominance, the Roman state became somewhat stronger. The attacks of the Germans were repulsed, the fallen provinces were returned. Under Emperor Diocletian (284-305), reforms were carried out that strengthened imperial power, the economy and order in the country. Diocletian's successor Constantine continued to strengthen the empire. He moved the capital to the east of the empire, which suffered less from barbarian raids and was more economically developed.

The Greek city of Byzantium occupied an exceptionally convenient position, where grandiose construction took place. In 330, the new capital of the empire was proclaimed - Constantinople. Here, shortly before his death in 337, Constantine was baptized. Christianity, which spread in the empire from the 1st century, received equal rights with other religions of the empire according to the Edict of Milan (313). In 394, by edict of Emperor Theodosius, it became the state religion.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

In 395, the Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern. The Western Roman Empire found itself in a particularly difficult situation. It was rocked by uprisings and invasions of barbarian tribes. There were not enough forces to protect the borders. In 476, the barbarian Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, sending the royal regalia to the eastern emperor.

Read the text and complete task 1.

Consolidating material on the topic: “Ancient Rome”

The city of ____________ arose on the banks of the river _____________ in Italy. In this country, located on the ______________________________ peninsula, there are _____________________ living conditions for people. There is __________________ climate, a lot of pastures and lands, ______________________ for farming. There is _____________ rainfall than in Greece. In the 1st millennium BC. Italy was inhabited by many nationalities, for example ___________________________________________________________.
Match the concepts and definitions.

Patricians A) ruler in ancient Rome, there were only 6 of them
Plebeians B) council of elders, consisted of patricians
King B) descendants of noble inhabitants of Rome
Senate D) a meeting of the citizens of Rome, only patricians participated in it
National Assembly D) immigrants from other regions of Italy

How, according to legend, was Rome founded?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Who were the Vestals in Ancient Rome? How were they treated?

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Watch the video lesson and complete task 2.

Video lesson on history “Ancient Rome” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIteL34FvbQ

Describe the natural conditions of Ancient Italy

Climate___________________________________________________________
There are conditions for ___________________________________________________
The mountains are rich_______________________________________________________________

The Roman gods were the same as the Greek ones, they just had different names.

Jupiter

(Zeus),
Neptune
(Poseidon),
Pluto
(Hades),
Mercury
(Hermes),
Venus
(Aphrodite),
Mars
(Ares)

What do these names remind us of?________________________________________________

Remember the legend about the founding of Rome. Answer the questions.

Who are these heroes?

Numitor________________________________

Amulius_________________________________

Rhea Silvia______________________________

Mars___________________________________

Romulus and Remus______________________________

How did the brothers Romulus and Remus survive?______________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What did Romulus and Remus do when they found out that they were of royal descent?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Why did Romulus kill his brother?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Fill the gaps.

According to legend, Rome was founded in _____ BC. on the bank of the river ___________. The founder of the city is considered to be ___________. He became the first __________ of Rome. He was surrounded by _____________, who were the king's personal guard. On their shoulders they carried a bunch of _____________ with ________________ stuck in them to punish offenders.

Write down the main occupations of the Romans.

___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________

Write definitions of these concepts.

Patricians________________________________________________________________Plebeians________________________________________________________________

Tsar________________________________________________________________

Senate________________________________________________________________People's Assembly (Rome)________________________________________________

The crisis of the Roman Empire, presentation for a history lesson (grade 10) on the topic

Slide 1

Crisis of the Roman Empire Author: Kryuchkov Matvey

Slide 2

In the 3rd century AD e. Roman civilization is entering a period called the Crisis of the 3rd century, characterized by a number of crisis phenomena in the economy, crafts, and trade.

Slide 3

In the 3rd century. The Roman Empire was experiencing a severe economic and political crisis, the cause of which was a deep contradiction between production relations and the nature of the productive forces. In the 3rd century. AD Significant changes were taking place in the economy and agriculture of the Roman Empire. According to the description of Cyprian (author of the 3rd century (doc. No. 93), who was an eyewitness to these events), “the whole world, as if divided into two opposite camps, is flooded with blood.” This time was characterized by the growth of large land ownership and the massive spread of colony. The position of the colonists was further worsened by numerous extortions, duties and soldiers' camps.

Slide 4

Background After the assassination of the last emperor of the Antonine dynasty, Commodus, a civil war begins in the Empire (193-197). A number of prominent leaders proclaim themselves emperors: Pertinax and Didius Julian in Rome, commander of the Danube army Septimius Severus, commander of the Syrian legions Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus in Britain . Imperial power was officially handed over by the Senate to the victorious Septimius Severus, who emerged from the war, who founded the imperial dynasty of Severus (193-235).

Slide 5

Septimius relied exclusively on the army, and the regime of government under him turned into a military-bureaucratic monarchy. Foreign policy was characterized by a number of successful wars with Parthia (195-199) and with the Caledonian tribes (208-211). After the death of the emperor, his son Antoninus Caracalla (211-217) killed his brother Geta, took the throne, after which he began an unjustified war with the Parthians and was killed by the conspirators. His successor, praetorian prefect Macrinus (April 11, 217-218), made an unsuccessful campaign against the Parthians, with whom a peace unfavorable for the Romans was concluded. The army was dissatisfied with Macrinus; Moreover, his Asian habits and effeminacy aroused general condemnation.

Slide 6

Caracalla's aunt, Julia Mesa, and her two daughters managed to arrange an army for the young Bassian (Heliogabalus), who was proclaimed emperor; Mesa passed him off as the illegitimate son of Caracalla. Macrinus sent Ulpius Julian against him, but the soldiers killed the latter, and the entire army, except the Praetorians, went over to the side of Bassian. The battle of Antioch took place, but Macrinus, without waiting for its outcome, fled. The soldiers of Heliogabalus overtook Macrinus in Chalcedon and brought him to Cappadocia. During a second attempt to escape, he was beheaded. Macrinus declared as his co-ruler his son Diadumen (first with the title of Caesar, and later Augustus), who was killed shortly after the overthrow of his father. After Macrinus, the ruler of the Roman Empire was a relative of Severus, posing as the son of Caracalla, the Syrian priest Heliogabalus (Elagabalus, 218-222), who was killed by his soldiers in March 222.

Slide 7

The 13-year-old Alexander Severus (222-235) became emperor, under whom the financial crisis worsened, and the threat from the growing power of the New Persian Kingdom, with which a war began in 231, increased. Alexander was killed by rebels, which marked the beginning of an even deeper political and socio-economic crisis.

Slide 8

Septimius Severus Macrinus

Slide 9

The era of “soldier emperors” In 235, the period of “imperial leapfrog” began. The desire to lead the country out of the crisis, and not to be satisfied with the delights of imperial power, was distinguished by Gaius Decius (249-251), as well as the aristocrat Publius Licinius Valerian (253-260) and his son Gallienus (253-268). However, during their reign, local separatism intensified, bringing to power the “Illyrian dynasty” (these emperors were not related, but all came from the military class of Illyria): Claudius II of Goth (268-270) marked the beginning of the revival of the Empire by transferring the throne into the hands of Lucius Domitius Aurelian (270-275). Aurelian repelled the invasion of Germanic tribes, restored Roman administration in the eastern provinces and subjugated the Gallic Empire. His power was absolute, which was a prerequisite for the further formation of imperial dominance.

Slide 10

The “Illyrian dynasty” continued under the reign of Marcus Aurelius Probus (276–282), who brought into order imperial power in Illyria, Thrace and Asia Minor. His successor Marcus Aurelius Carus (282–283) defeated the Germans, after which the Illyrian Diocles, known as Diocletian, ascended the throne, marking the beginning of the Dominant period (284–476)

Glory and greatness of Ancient Rome Lesson MHC, grade 10 Teacher: Khlebnikova M.V. - presentation

Glory and greatness of Ancient Rome Lesson MHC, grade 10 Teacher: Khlebnikova M.V.
The glory and greatness of Rome Ancient Rome refers not only to the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also to all the countries and peoples it conquered that were part of the colossal Roman Empire from the British Isles to Egypt. Roman art is the highest achievement and the result of the development of ancient art. It was created not only by the Romans, but also by the Italics, ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Syrians, inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Ancient Germany and other peoples. Although, in general, the ancient Greek school dominated in Roman art. By Ancient Rome we mean not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples it conquered that were part of the colossal Roman Empire from the British Isles to Egypt. Roman art is the highest achievement and the result of the development of ancient art. It was created not only by the Romans, but also by the Italics, ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Syrians, inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Ancient Germany and other peoples. Although, in general, the ancient Greek school dominated in Roman art.

Ancient Rome created a kind of cultural environment: beautifully planned cities adapted for life with paved roads, magnificent bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries dedicated to nymphs), palaces, villas and simply comfortable, good-quality houses with equally comfortable and good quality furniture, that is, everything that is characteristic of a civilized society. Ancient Rome created a kind of cultural environment: beautifully planned cities adapted for life with paved roads, magnificent bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries dedicated to nymphs), palaces, villas and simply comfortable, good-quality houses with equally comfortable and good quality furniture, that is, everything that is characteristic of a civilized society.

For the first time in history, the Romans began to build standard cities, the prototype of which was the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid, at the intersection of which the city center was developed. The urban layout followed a strictly thought-out scheme. For the first time in history, the Romans began to build standard cities, the prototype of which was the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid, at the intersection of which the city center was developed. The urban layout followed a strictly thought-out scheme.

The main shrine of Rome, founded on April 19, 735 BC. e., there was a temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The temple has not survived, but it is believed that it was laid out according to the Etruscan model: with a deep front portico, a high plinth and a staircase leading to the main entrance. The main shrine of Rome, founded on April 19, 735 BC. e., there was a temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The temple has not survived, but it is believed that it was laid out according to the Etruscan model: with a deep front portico, a high plinth and a staircase leading to the main entrance.

Roman forum. II century BC

(Ponte Fabrizia, Garsky Bridge). The Mulvius Bridge, which stood for more than two thousand years, is very expressive. The bridge visually “rests” on the water with semicircles of arches, the supports between which are cut with high and narrow openings to lighten the weight. On top of the arches lies a cornice, giving the entire structure stylistic completeness. (Ponte Fabrizia, Garsky Bridge). The Mulvius Bridge, which stood for more than two thousand years, is very expressive. The bridge visually “rests” on the water with semicircles of arches, the supports between which are cut with high and narrow openings to lighten the weight. On top of the arches lies a cornice, giving the entire structure stylistic completeness. Fabrizia Bridge Gar Bridge Fabrizia Bridge Gar Bridge

Roman bridges of the 1st-2nd centuries. BC.

Amphitheater

Roman house The inside of the house was painted. Over time, the style of paintings changed. At the end of the 2nd century. BC e. the walls of the houses were painted in the so-called first Pompeian, or “inlay” style: it was a geometric pattern reminiscent of lining the walls with precious stones. In the 1st century BC e. The so-called “architectural” or second Pompeian style came into fashion. Now the walls of the houses turned into a semblance of a city landscape, which included images of colonnades, all kinds of porticoes and building facades (Fresco from Boscoreale). Human figures also appeared in the paintings. The inside of the house was painted. Over time, the style of paintings changed. At the end of the 2nd century. BC e. the walls of the houses were painted in the so-called first Pompeian, or “inlay” style: it was a geometric pattern reminiscent of lining the walls with precious stones. In the 1st century BC e. The so-called “architectural” or second Pompeian style came into fashion. Now the walls of the houses turned into a semblance of a city landscape, which included images of colonnades, all kinds of porticoes and building facades (Fresco from Boscoreale). Human figures also appeared in the paintings. Fresco from Boscoreale Fresco from Boscoreale

Portrait A remarkable achievement of republican art was the portrait. Here the Romans borrowed a lot from the Etruscans, but the Roman portrait had one significant difference. The Etruscans, creatively processing nature, imprinted in stone an image that was, although reliable, more or less poetic. The Roman portrait went back to the wax masks that were removed from the dead. The masks were kept in the most honorable place (the atrium), and the more of them there were, the more noble the family was considered. The republican era is characterized by portraits that are very close to life. They convey the smallest details of the human face. A remarkable achievement of republican art was the portrait. Here the Romans borrowed a lot from the Etruscans, but the Roman portrait had one significant difference. The Etruscans, creatively processing nature, imprinted in stone an image that was, although reliable, more or less poetic. The Roman portrait went back to the wax masks that were removed from the dead. The masks were kept in the most honorable place (the atrium), and the more of them there were, the more noble the family was considered. The republican era is characterized by portraits that are very close to life. They convey the smallest details of the human face.

Julius Caesar The image of the hero becomes more generalized and at the same time more expressive: Caesar looks at the viewer questioningly, with secret reproach (this work was created after the death of Caesar). The image of the hero becomes more generalized and at the same time more expressive: Caesar looks at the viewer questioningly, with secret reproach (this work was created after the death of Caesar).

Octavian (August)

energetic and intelligent politician. A high forehead, slightly covered with bangs, expressive facial features and a small, firm chin. Although Augustus, according to ancient authors, was in poor health and often wrapped in warm clothes, he was depicted in portraits as powerful and courageous. energetic and intelligent politician. A high forehead, slightly covered with bangs, expressive facial features and a small, firm chin. Although Augustus, according to ancient authors, was in poor health and often wrapped in warm clothes, he was depicted in portraits as powerful and courageous.

Emperor Nero

During the reign of Emperor Nero, one of the most cruel rulers of the Roman Empire, portrait art flourished. The evolution of the image of the emperor himself from a gifted child to a despised monster can be traced in a whole series of portraits. They are far from the traditional type of a powerful and brave hero (Head of Emperor Nero). Sloppy sideburns, chaotically fluffed hair above the forehead. The face is gloomy, incredulous, the eyebrows are knitted, and there is a vengeful, sarcastic grin in the corners of the lips. Late portraits present Nero as a complex and contradictory person. His personality, extraordinary and strong, is burdened with many vices. During the reign of Emperor Nero, one of the most cruel rulers of the Roman Empire, portrait art flourished. The evolution of the image of the emperor himself from a gifted child to a despised monster can be traced in a whole series of portraits. They are far from the traditional type of a powerful and brave hero (Head of Emperor Nero). Sloppy sideburns, chaotically fluffed hair above the forehead. The face is gloomy, incredulous, the eyebrows are knitted, and there is a vengeful, sarcastic grin in the corners of the lips. Late portraits present Nero as a complex and contradictory person. His personality, extraordinary and strong, is burdened with many vices. Head of Emperor Nero Head of Emperor Nero

In the 7080s. n. e. In Rome, a grandiose Flavian amphitheater was built, called the Colosseum. It was built on the site of the destroyed Golden House of Nero and belonged to a new type of building. The Colosseum was a huge bowl with stepped rows of seats, enclosed on the outside by an elliptical ring wall. The Colosseum is the largest amphitheater of ancient times. It accommodated about fifty thousand spectators. Inside there were four tiers of seats, which on the outside corresponded to three tiers of arcades: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The fourth tier was blank, with Corinthian pilasters as flat projections on the wall. Inside, the Colosseum is very constructive and organic; expediency is combined with art: it embodies the image of the world and the principles of life that the Romans had developed by the 1st century. n. e. In the 7080s. n. e. In Rome, a grandiose Flavian amphitheater was built, called the Colosseum. It was built on the site of the destroyed Golden House of Nero and belonged to a new type of building. The Colosseum was a huge bowl with stepped rows of seats, enclosed on the outside by an elliptical ring wall. The Colosseum is the largest amphitheater of ancient times. It accommodated about fifty thousand spectators. Inside there were four tiers of seats, which on the outside corresponded to three tiers of arcades: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The fourth tier was blank, with Corinthian pilasters as flat projections on the wall. Inside, the Colosseum is very constructive and organic; expediency is combined with art: it embodies the image of the world and the principles of life that the Romans had developed by the 1st century. n. e.Inside the Colosseum Inside the Colosseum

Pantheon Under Hadrian (c. 125), the most grandiose domed structure of the Ancient World was created: the Pantheon, the temple of all gods, which still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument that escaped destruction or reconstruction during the Middle Ages. From the outside, the Pantheon is a huge cylindrical volume with a deep portico attached. Under Hadrian (c. 125), the most grandiose domed structure of the Ancient World was created, the Pantheon, the temple of all gods, which still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument that escaped destruction or reconstruction during the Middle Ages. From the outside, the Pantheon is a huge cylindrical volume, to which is attached a deep portico.Pantheon

Once upon a time, people entered the Pantheon through the triumphal arch that stood on its square. Once upon a time, people entered the Pantheon through the triumphal arch that stood on its square.

Inside, the Pantheon has a two-tier wall with columns and niches, cut through by vaulted arches. The dome rests on the second, smaller and flatter tier. Inside, the Pantheon has a two-tier wall with columns and niches, cut through by vaulted arches. The dome rests on the second, smaller and flatter tier. Inside the Pantheon Inside the Pantheon

The dome has five rows of perspective caissons (square recesses), and ends with an opening at the top. The dome has five rows of perspective caissons (square recesses), and ends with an opening at the top. Dome

Trajan's Forum The Circus Maximus brought Trajan popularity. But the emperor did not stop there. He was Rome's greatest developer and built another architectural marvel, the Forum. The Forum is a cultural symbol of the Roman city, the central square where citizens meet. Usually there is a temple on one side, a basilica and a courthouse on the other. Trajan was a non-Italian emperor (he was born in Spain) and by building the Forum, he hoped not only to strengthen his popularity, but also to become a true Roman. By that time, there were already five forums in Rome, but none of them could compete with Trajan's Forum. In size it was equal to all of them combined. The Circus Maximus brought Trajan popularity. But the emperor did not stop there. He was Rome's greatest developer and built another architectural marvel, the Forum. The Forum is a cultural symbol of the Roman city, the central square where citizens meet. Usually there is a temple on one side, a basilica and a courthouse on the other. Trajan was a non-Italian emperor (he was born in Spain) and by building the Forum, he hoped not only to strengthen his popularity, but also to become a true Roman. By that time, there were already five forums in Rome, but none of them could compete with Trajan's Forum. It was equal in size to all of them combined.Forum

At the Forum, the majestic Column of Trajan was installed, dominating the entire complex. The column was decorated with reliefs of remarkable expressiveness, telling about the military victories of the emperor, about the successful campaigns of the Roman army to cross the Danube and seize the territory of modern Romania. At the Forum, the majestic Column of Trajan was installed, dominating the entire complex. The column was decorated with reliefs, remarkable in their expressiveness, telling about the military victories of the emperor, about the successful campaigns of the Roman army to cross the Danube and seize the territory of modern Romania. Trajan's Column with reliefs Column with Trajan's reliefs

Trajan's Column

Aqueducts Aqueducts are a great achievement of engineering. They brought the purest water directly to the homes of a million people in Rome. Graceful arches and underground tunnels striding across the landscape brought a hard-to-believe billion tons of fresh water into the city every day. This fantastic system became the lifeblood of Rome and the engineering model for cities of all subsequent times. Aqueducts are a great feat of engineering. They brought the purest water directly to the homes of a million people in Rome. Graceful arches and underground tunnels striding across the landscape brought a hard-to-believe billion tons of fresh water into the city every day. This fantastic system became the lifeblood of Rome and the engineering model for cities of all subsequent times.

Baths of Caracalla

A century later, Rome was ruled by Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who went down in history under the ominous nickname Caracalla. Along with Caligula and Nero, Caracalla was one of the most brutal rulers of Rome. He killed his own brother in front of his mother, ordering his name to be erased from all monuments in Rome, as well as the image of his father-in-law. The emperor was so hated that he decided to build a real miracle for the Romans in order to gain their favor and whiten himself in their eyes. A century later, Rome was ruled by Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who went down in history under the ominous nickname Caracalla. Along with Caligula and Nero, Caracalla was one of the most brutal rulers of Rome. He killed his own brother in front of his mother, ordering his name to be erased from all monuments in Rome, as well as the image of his father-in-law. The emperor was so hated that he decided to build a real miracle for the Romans in order to gain their favor and whiten himself in their eyes. Caracalla

Thermae (baths). It was the most magnificent public building that man had ever conceived. It was a public palace, the most luxurious and perfect water resort of all time. Why did Caracalla build the baths? Some psychologists believe that the idea of building baths arose from the emperor because he subconsciously sought to wash away the guilt that he apparently acknowledged in this way. Thermae (baths). It was the most magnificent public building that man had ever conceived. It was a public palace, the most luxurious and perfect water resort of all time. Why did Caracalla build the baths? Some psychologists believe that the idea of building baths arose from the emperor because he subconsciously sought to wash away the guilt that he apparently acknowledged in this way.

ROADS ROADS Despite bad rulers, unrest and coups, Rome was the nerve center of a huge empire. This was made possible by the miracle of Roman roads. The Romans understood that running an empire depended on an efficient road system to transport troops and goods. And with the help of roads, they turned the empire into one global village. Despite bad rulers, unrest and coups, Rome was the nerve center of a huge empire. This was made possible by the miracle of Roman roads. The Romans understood that running an empire depended on an efficient road system to transport troops and goods. And with the help of roads, they turned the empire into one global village.

The first Roman road was Via Appia, begun in 312 BC. e. Over the next two hundred years, a network of roads with a total length of 300 thousand kilometers was laid from Rome to the farthest corners of the empire. The Roman army marched along these roads very successfully. Soon all of Europe in the west, all the lands to Judea in the east and Egypt in the south came under the rule of Rome. The first Roman road was Via Appia, begun in 312 BC. e. Over the next two hundred years, a network of roads with a total length of 300 thousand kilometers was laid from Rome to the farthest corners of the empire. The Roman army marched along these roads very successfully. Soon all of Europe in the west, all the lands to Judea in the east and Egypt in the south came under the rule of Rome.Via AppiaVia Appia

Roads were built very carefully, because they were the basis of communications for the empire. The most striking feature of Roman roads is their durability. All roads were built using the same technology. A wide trench was laid along the markings. Sand was poured there and cobblestones were laid to create a reliable foundation. Then came a layer of gravel and crushed stone. They were mixed with clay or mortar and compacted. And finally, a layer of paving stones, sometimes basalt, with a convex profile was placed on top so that the water would flow to the side of the road. Roads were built very carefully, because they were the basis of communications for the empire. The most striking feature of Roman roads is their durability. All roads were built using the same technology. A wide trench was laid along the markings. Sand was poured there and cobblestones were laid to create a reliable foundation. Then came a layer of gravel and crushed stone. They were mixed with clay or mortar and compacted. And finally, a layer of paving stones, sometimes basalt, with a convex profile was placed on top so that the water would flow to the side of the road.

Conclusion The Seven Wonders of Ancient Rome were a remarkable achievement that raised architecture and engineering to a pinnacle unsurpassed for over a thousand years. The courage of their plan still serves as an example for architects, encouraging them to develop ever new materials, pose and solve ever new problems, that is, to do, like the Romans, to build, looking to the future. The Seven Wonders of Ancient Rome were a remarkable achievement, raising architecture and engineering to a pinnacle unsurpassed for over a thousand years. The courage of their plan still serves as an example for architects, encouraging them to develop ever new materials, pose and solve ever new problems, that is, to do, like the Romans, to build, looking to the future.

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Ancient Rome Project work of 10th grade student “A” Andrey Zamorenov. - presentation

Ancient Rome Project work of 10th grade student “A” Andrey Zamorenov

Nature of the Apennine Peninsula To the west of the Balkan Peninsula there is another large peninsula - the Apennine Peninsula. A mountain range runs along the entire peninsula - the Apennine Mountains. Between the mountains and the sea there are flat coastlines. The high Alps protect the peninsula from northern winds. Its climate is warm and it also receives a lot of rain, which is conducive to agriculture. There are many pastures with thick tall grass on the mountain slopes. The ancient Greeks, accustomed to the meager pastures of their homeland, were surprised by the rich vegetation of the Apennine Peninsula and the abundance of livestock here. They called the southern part of the peninsula “the country of calves” - Italy. Later this name spread to the entire peninsula. On the western and southern coasts of the peninsula there are bays convenient for mooring ships. The island of Sicily almost adjoins the southern tip of the peninsula. The climate in Sicily is warmer and the vegetation is richer than on the Apennine Peninsula.

The emergence of the city of Rome. Patricia. The Tiber River flows in the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula. It originates in the mountains; Coming out of the mountains, the Tiber flows to the sea across the plain. Hills rise among the plain. In ancient times it was swampy, and the hills were covered with deciduous forest. A tribe of Latins lived on the plain. 25 km from the mouth of the Tiber, on the hills of the left bank of the river, the small town of Rome arose. According to legend, it was founded in the mid-18th century BC. The descendants of the most ancient inhabitants of Rome were called patricians. They formed a community that owned arable land and pastures. Each patrician family, known as a surname in Latin, received a plot of land in a communal field and grazed its livestock on a communal pasture. Usually the patricians themselves worked in the fields and at home. Slaves worked together with the owners, but there were few of them. Slaves were considered members of the family and often ate at a common table with their masters. The elders of the patricians formed the “council of elders”, in Latin the senate. Rome was ruled by a king and a senate.

Legend about the founding of Rome According to legend, the king of one of the Latin towns ordered the newborn sons of his niece, Romulus and Remus, to be thrown into the Tiber. He was afraid that when the children grew up, they would deprive him of the throne. There was a flood on the Tiber, and a basket with boys thrown into the water got caught on a tree branch. The children were saved. The she-wolf fed them with her milk, and then a shepherd found them and raised them. The brothers grew up to be strong and brave warriors. Having rebelled against the king, they killed him. Romulus and Remus decided to found a city, but they quarreled over where to build it and who would rule it. In a quarrel, Romulus killed Remus. Near the place where the shepherd found the boys, he founded the city of Rome, Roma in Latin. According to legend, the king of one of the Latin towns ordered the newborn sons of his niece, Romulus and Remus, to be thrown into the Tiber. He was afraid that when the children grew up, they would deprive him of the throne. There was a flood on the Tiber, and a basket with boys thrown into the water got caught on a tree branch. The children were saved. The she-wolf fed them with her milk, and then a shepherd found them and raised them. The brothers grew up to be strong and brave warriors. Having rebelled against the king, they killed him. Romulus and Remus decided to found a city, but they quarreled over where to build it and who would rule it. In a quarrel, Romulus killed Remus. Near the place where the shepherd found the boys, he founded the city of Rome, Roma in Latin. The Romans counted the years from the legendary year of the founding of their city - 753 BC. e. The Romans counted the years from the legendary year of the founding of their city - 753 BC. e.

The growth of Rome in the first centuries of its existence. The struggle between plebeians and patricians. Establishment of the Republic. The location of Rome was very advantageous. Fertile lands spread around the city. There was a convenient harbor at the mouth of the Tiber; from it there was a road through Rome into the interior of Italy. Merchants and artisans began to settle in Rome. The Romans, conquering neighboring towns, resettled some of their inhabitants to Rome. The city's population grew rapidly. The location of Rome was very advantageous. Fertile lands spread around the city. There was a convenient harbor at the mouth of the Tiber; from it there was a road through Rome into the interior of Italy. Merchants and artisans began to settle in Rome. The Romans, conquering neighboring towns, resettled some of their inhabitants to Rome. The city's population grew rapidly. Rome is located on seven hills. The fortress was located on the steep Capitol Hill. Behind its walls, the surrounding residents took refuge from enemy attacks. The Romans drained the lowland between the hills and set up a market square (forum in Latin) there. Rome is located on seven hills. The fortress was located on the steep Capitol Hill. Behind its walls, the surrounding residents took refuge from enemy attacks. The Romans drained the lowland between the hills and set up a market square (forum in Latin) there. People who moved to Rome from other places and their descendants were called plebeians. There were many poor people among them. But there were also rich people. Plebeians paid taxes, served in the army, but did not receive land in the common field. Plebeians who did not pay their debt on time were enslaved. People who moved to Rome from other places and their descendants were called plebeians. There were many poor people among them. But there were also rich people. Plebeians paid taxes, served in the army, but did not receive land in the common field. Plebeians who did not pay their debt on time were enslaved. The plebeians were unhappy with their position. They rebelled against the patricians, refused to pay taxes, serve in the army and threatened to leave the city. Fearing a weakening of the army and an uprising, the patricians recognized the plebeians as equal members of the state. The plebeians were unhappy with their position. They rebelled against the patricians, refused to pay taxes, serve in the army and threatened to leave the city. Fearing a weakening of the army and an uprising, the patricians recognized the plebeians as equal members of the state. At the end of the 6th century BC there was a very cruel king in Rome. The Romans rebelled against him, expelled him and decided to destroy the royal power. The People's Assembly began to annually elect two rulers from among the inhabitants, called consuls. They were assisted by other officials, also elected by the people's assembly. After this year, the highest officials became members of the Senate. The Romans called their government “a public affair”, in Latin a republic. At the end of the 6th century BC there was a very cruel king in Rome. The Romans rebelled against him, expelled him and decided to destroy the royal power. The People's Assembly began to annually elect two rulers from among the inhabitants, called consuls. They were assisted by other officials, also elected by the people's assembly. After this year, the highest officials became members of the Senate. The Romans called their government “a public affair”, in Latin a republic.

Roman army in the 1st century BC. The Roman Republic had a strong, well-organized and trained army. It consisted mainly of peasants, since only people with a plot of land were called up for service. The Roman Republic had a strong, well-organized and trained army. It consisted mainly of peasants, since only people with a plot of land were called up for service. The army was divided into legions, 4500 each. The legion was divided into small detachments. They could fight not only on a flat field, but also in the forest, in the mountains and in the city. The army was divided into legions, 4500 each. The legion was divided into small detachments. They could fight not only on a flat field, but also in the forest, in the mountains and in the city. Lightly armed wars began the battle. Trying to disrupt the enemy's ranks, they fired at him with bows and threw stones and darts. Then they ran back and made room for the heavily armed infantry, which formed the main strength of the legion. Throwing spears at the enemy, the legionnaires attacked the enemy with short swords, which were a terrible weapon in close combat. During the battle, the cavalry protected the infantry from the flanks, and in victory they pursued the defeated enemy. Lightly armed wars began the battle. Trying to disrupt the enemy's ranks, they fired at him with bows and threw stones and darts. Then they ran back and made room for the heavily armed infantry, which formed the main strength of the legion. Throwing spears at the enemy, the legionnaires attacked the enemy with short swords, which were a terrible weapon in close combat. During the battle, the cavalry protected the infantry from the flanks, and in victory they pursued the defeated enemy. The Roman army had strict discipline. Thanks to this, the Romans conquered all of Italy. The Roman army had strict discipline. Thanks to this, the Romans conquered all of Italy. The Senate tried to quarrel and quarrel the conquered tribes in order to prevent their unification against Rome. The Senate tried to quarrel and quarrel the conquered tribes in order to prevent their unification against Rome. The rule of the Senate was “divide and conquer”! The rule of the Senate was “divide and conquer”!

Punic Wars. The city of Carthage was founded by the Phoenicians on the northern coast of Africa. Carthage conducted a large maritime trade. The fertile lands in the vicinity of the city belonged to wealthy slave owners. Their fields and vineyards were cultivated by slaves, chained several by one chain. Carthage had a strong navy and a large army, consisting mainly of mercenaries. The city of Carthage was founded by the Phoenicians on the northern coast of Africa. Carthage conducted a large maritime trade. The fertile lands in the vicinity of the city belonged to wealthy slave owners. Their fields and vineyards were cultivated by slaves, chained several by one chain. Carthage had a strong navy and a large army, consisting mainly of mercenaries. The desire of Rome and Carthage to capture Sicily led to war between them. The war was called Punic because the Romans called the Carthaginians Punes. The war lasted more than 20 years and ended in victory for the Romans. The Romans captured Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. The desire of Rome and Carthage to capture Sicily led to war between them. The war was called Punic because the Romans called the Carthaginians Punes. The war lasted more than 20 years and ended in victory for the Romans. The Romans captured Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. The forces of Carthage, however, were not broken. The Carthaginians captured large territories in Spain. The army here was commanded by the young commander Hannibal. In 218 BC, the Romans declared war on Carthage. Unexpectedly for the Romans, Hannibal led his army to Italy through the Alps. Half of the Carthaginians died while crossing the mountains. With the wars surviving, Hannibal moved to Italy. The ranks of his troops were replenished by the Gauls. For the Romans, Hannibal's army fell like snow on their heads. In 216 BC, near the village of Cannae, a battle took place between the Roman army and the army of Hannibal, which ended in the victory of Hannibal over the Roman army superior in number. After the victory over the Roman army, some cities separated from Rome. But Rome gathered a large army and landed in Africa. Hannibal had to go back. After which a battle took place near the city of Zama in which the Romans defeated the army of Hannibal. In 202, peace was signed, Carthage had to give Rome its entire navy and pay a huge amount of money. The forces of Carthage, however, were not broken. The Carthaginians captured large territories in Spain. The army here was commanded by the young commander Hannibal. In 218 BC, the Romans declared war on Carthage. Unexpectedly for the Romans, Hannibal led his army to Italy through the Alps. Half of the Carthaginians died while crossing the mountains. With the wars surviving, Hannibal moved to Italy. The ranks of his troops were replenished by the Gauls. For the Romans, Hannibal's army fell like snow on their heads. In 216 BC, near the village of Cannae, a battle took place between the Roman army and the army of Hannibal, which ended in the victory of Hannibal over the Roman army superior in number. After the victory over the Roman army, some cities separated from Rome. But Rome gathered a large army and landed in Africa. Hannibal had to go back. After which a battle took place near the city of Zama in which the Romans defeated the army of Hannibal. In 202, peace was signed, Carthage had to give Rome its entire navy and pay a huge amount of money. Having lost its navy, Carthage was not dangerous to Rome, but it continued to conduct maritime trade and began to grow rich. The Roman aristocrats wanted to destroy the city they hated. In the middle of the 2nd century BC, a Roman army landed in Africa and besieged the city of Carthage. The 3rd Punic War began. The Carthaginians bravely defended their city, but the Roman army captured the city and destroyed it. Carthage was wiped off the face of the earth. Having lost its navy, Carthage was not dangerous to Rome, but it continued to conduct maritime trade and began to grow rich. The Roman aristocrats wanted to destroy the city they hated. In the middle of the 2nd century BC, a Roman army landed in Africa and besieged the city of Carthage. The 3rd Punic War began. The Carthaginians bravely defended their city, but the Roman army captured the city and destroyed it. Carthage was wiped off the face of the earth.

The defeat of the Syrian kingdom and the conquest of Macedonia and Greece. Rome was not content with dominating the Western Mediterranean. The Roman army landed in the Balkans and Central Asia. The advance of the Roman army led to war with the Syrian kingdom. The Syrian king had a huge army, among many peoples subject to him. In Asia Minor it fought with the Roman army and was completely defeated. The king became dependent on Rome. And his kingdom fell apart into small tribes. Rome was not content with dominating the Western Mediterranean. The Roman army landed in the Balkans and Central Asia. The advance of the Roman army led to war with the Syrian kingdom. The Syrian king had a huge army, among many peoples subject to him. In Asia Minor it fought with the Roman army and was completely defeated. The king became dependent on Rome. And his kingdom fell apart into small tribes. And on the Balkan Peninsula, the Romans easily applied the rule of “divide and conquer.” In the war against Macedonia, the Romans won over the Greeks, promising them independence. After the conquest of Macedonia, the Greeks tried to regain their freedom. But the Romans suppressed the uprising and destroyed the Greek cultural center, the city of Corinth. And on the Balkan Peninsula, the Romans easily applied the rule of “divide and conquer.” In the war against Macedonia, the Romans won over the Greeks, promising them independence. After the conquest of Macedonia, the Greeks tried to regain their freedom. But the Romans suppressed the uprising and destroyed the Greek cultural center, the city of Corinth.

Slavery in Rome. The wars of Rome were accompanied by the capture of thousands of inhabitants. The Romans held slave markets in their provinces. Roman aristocrats bought slaves and forced them to work on their estates. Slave labor was used everywhere. Slaves lived in inhumane conditions. They were treated like animals. The wars of Rome were accompanied by the capture of thousands of inhabitants. The Romans held slave markets in their provinces. Roman aristocrats bought slaves and forced them to work on their estates. Slave labor was used everywhere. Slaves lived in inhumane conditions. They were treated like animals. Gladiators suffered a more terrible fate. They were given weapons and forced to fight. Gladiator fights were a favorite pastime of the Romans. Rarely did any gladiator die a natural death. Gladiators suffered a more terrible fate. They were given weapons and forced to fight. Gladiator fights were a favorite pastime of the Romans. Rarely did any gladiator die a natural death. Discontent grew among slaves and gladiators. Discontent grew among slaves and gladiators.

The Revolt of Spartacus The revolt of slaves under the leadership of Spartacus (73-71) is considered the most significant event of the period of crisis of the Roman republican system in the 1st century. BC. and is assessed as the most striking manifestation of the class struggle in antiquity. It was started by a group of slave gladiators from a private gladiator school in Capua. About 200 slaves formed a conspiracy, which was discovered, but 74 people fled and took refuge on Vesuvius. The rebels chose three leaders, the first of whom was the Thracian Spartacus, a former mercenary who was captured and sold as a gladiator. He had outstanding abilities as a military leader and organizer. The other two, Crixus and Oenomaus, are believed to be of Gallic or Germanic origin. Slaves from the surrounding area and some “freemen from the fields” came running to the rebels. The Roman detachment that came from Capua was repulsed. Having inflicted several serious defeats on the Romans, Spartacus had already become a great and formidable force, but as a sane person, he clearly understood that he still could not break the power of the Romans, and led his army to the Alps, hoping to cross the mountains and thus give everyone the opportunity to return home - some to Thrace, others to Gaul. The slave revolt led by Spartacus (73-71) is considered the most significant event during the crisis of the Roman republican system in the 1st century. BC. and is assessed as the most striking manifestation of the class struggle in antiquity. It was started by a group of slave gladiators from a private gladiator school in Capua. About 200 slaves formed a conspiracy, which was discovered, but 74 people fled and took refuge on Vesuvius. The rebels chose three leaders, the first of whom was the Thracian Spartacus, a former mercenary who was captured and sold as a gladiator. He had outstanding abilities as a military leader and organizer. The other two, Crixus and Oenomaus, are believed to be of Gallic or Germanic origin. Slaves from the surrounding area and some “freemen from the fields” came running to the rebels. The Roman detachment that came from Capua was repulsed. Having inflicted several serious defeats on the Romans, Spartacus had already become a great and formidable force, but as a sane person, he clearly understood that he still could not break the power of the Romans, and led his army to the Alps, hoping to cross the mountains and thus give everyone the opportunity to return home - some to Thrace, others to Gaul. The number of rebels, according to Appian, had already reached 70 thousand. Ancient authors write about disagreements among them, which are explained either by tribal discord or heterogeneity of social composition. Crixus with a 20,000-strong detachment was defeated in Apulia near Mount Gargana, where he died. Both consuls of 72 Gn. were sent against Spartacus, who led the main part of the rebels. Cornelius Lentulus and L. Gellius Publicola, and he defeated them one by one. Spartak moved towards the Alps. But suddenly he abandoned his previous plan and turned back. There is no satisfactory explanation for this change of plans. Spartacus moved towards Rome. He ordered the excess convoy to be burned, the pack cattle to be cut, and to travel light. The Senate placed praetor Crassus at the head of the Roman forces, giving him extraordinary powers. In Picenum, Spartacus defeated one of the Roman detachments, putting the soldiers to flight. The soldiers clearly did not want to fight the “slaves.” Crassus resorted to decimation, an extreme and cruel measure to restore discipline in the army. However, he asked the Senate to summon two more generals from the province - Pompey and Lucullus. Spartak, however, did not go to Rome and headed to Southern Italy. It is believed that he intended to cross to Sicily, but this failed. Meanwhile, Crassus blocked the isthmus with a ditch, trapping the rebels in Bruttium. Spartacus, having filled up the ditch, moved his army along it. It is assumed that his path lay to Brundisium, where he wanted to put the army on ships and transport it to Greece. However, in 71, in Apulia, Spartak was defeated and died. Separate detachments of the slave army were still operating after his death. Pompey, who arrived from Spain, completed their defeat, after which the slaves were crucified along the road leading from Capua to Rome. The number of rebels, according to Appian, had already reached 70 thousand. Ancient authors write about disagreements among them, which are explained either by tribal discord or heterogeneity of social composition. Crixus with a 20,000-strong detachment was defeated in Apulia near Mount Gargana, where he died. Both consuls of 72 Gn. were sent against Spartacus, who led the main part of the rebels. Cornelius Lentulus and L. Gellius Publicola, and he defeated them one by one. Spartak moved towards the Alps. But suddenly he abandoned his previous plan and turned back. There is no satisfactory explanation for this change of plans. Spartacus moved towards Rome. He ordered the excess convoy to be burned, the pack cattle to be cut, and to travel light. The Senate placed praetor Crassus at the head of the Roman forces, giving him extraordinary powers. In Picenum, Spartacus defeated one of the Roman detachments, putting the soldiers to flight. The soldiers clearly did not want to fight the “slaves.” Crassus resorted to decimation, an extreme and cruel measure to restore discipline in the army. However, he asked the Senate to summon two more generals from the province - Pompey and Lucullus. Spartacus, however, did not go to Rome and headed to Southern Italy. It is believed that he intended to cross to Sicily, but this failed. Meanwhile, Crassus blocked the isthmus with a ditch, trapping the rebels in Bruttium. Spartacus, having filled up the ditch, moved his army along it. It is assumed that his path lay to Brundisium, where he wanted to put the army on ships and transport it to Greece. However, in 71, in Apulia, Spartak was defeated and died. Separate detachments of the slave army were still operating after his death. Pompey, who arrived from Spain, completed their defeat, after which the slaves were crucified along the road leading from Capua to Rome.

Caesar's seizure of power in Rome and the transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire. Rome's wars of conquest and the transformation of the Roman army into a mercenary army led to the strengthening of the power of generals. By 58 BC. e. the authorities began to seek two very influential commanders: Pompey, who distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Spartacus, and also Julius Caesar, who by 58 became governor of Gaul. Rome's wars of conquest and the transformation of the Roman army into a mercenary army led to the strengthening of the power of generals. By 58 BC. e. the authorities began to seek two very influential commanders: Pompey, who distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Spartacus, and also Julius Caesar, who by 58 became governor of Gaul. After the conquest of Gaul, Caesar had a battle-hardened army, power and enormous wealth. In 49 BC, Caesar marched with his army towards Rome. The Senate had more troops, but they were scattered throughout the provinces. The Senate entrusted the command of the troops to Pompey. Caesar acted so quickly that Pompey was unable to organize the defense of Rome and hastily left for the Balkan peninsula. There he managed to gather a large army; the legions that crossed there completely defeated his army. Pompey fled but was soon killed. After the conquest of Gaul, Caesar had a battle-hardened army, power and enormous wealth. In 49 BC, Caesar marched with his army towards Rome. The Senate had more troops, but they were scattered throughout the provinces. The Senate entrusted the command of the troops to Pompey. Caesar acted so quickly that Pompey was unable to organize the defense of Rome and hastily left for the Balkan peninsula. There he managed to gather a large army; the legions that crossed there completely defeated his army. Pompey fled but was soon killed. After the end of the civil war, Caesar proclaimed himself emperor. His image was minted on coins, his statues were placed next to the statues of the gods. He generously rewarded his soldiers, but disappointed the hopes of the poor. Some of the senators were dissatisfied with Caesar's rule, and in 44, during a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators surrounded and killed him. After the end of the civil war, Caesar proclaimed himself emperor. His image was minted on coins, his statues were placed next to the statues of the gods. He generously rewarded his soldiers, but disappointed the hopes of the poor. Some of the senators were dissatisfied with Caesar's rule, and in 44, during a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators surrounded and killed him.

The Roman army under Octavian Augustus and his successors The conspirators who killed Caesar did not meet with support from the people. Few people were willing to put up with a republic whose power belonged to several aristocratic families. Caesar's troops wanted to deal with the conspirators, but they fled to Macedonia and gathered a large army there that was ready to march on Rome. The conspirators who killed Caesar did not meet with the support of the people. Few people were willing to put up with a republic whose power belonged to several aristocratic families. Caesar's troops wanted to deal with the conspirators, but they fled to Macedonia and gathered a large army there that was ready to march on Rome. Caesar's legionaries had new leaders: his former assistant Antony and his young relative Octavian. They hated each other but united against the Republicans. They transported their army to Macedonia and completely defeated the Republican army. Caesar's legionaries had new leaders: his former assistant Antony and his young relative Octavian. They hated each other but united against the Republicans. They transported their army to Macedonia and completely defeated the Republican army. After defeating the Republicans, Antony and Octavian divided power between themselves: Antony ruled the eastern domains of the Roman Empire, and Octavian ruled the western domains. Each of them wanted to become an emperor. In 31 BC. e. Antony concentrated his army and fleet at the Cape of Acacia in Greece, and Octavian’s troops arrived here and defeated Antony’s fleet. After which Octavian's troops approached Alexandria. Antonian, left without an army, stabbed himself. After defeating the Republicans, Antony and Octavian divided power between themselves: Antony ruled the eastern domains of the Roman Empire, and Octavian ruled the western domains. Each of them wanted to become an emperor. In 31 BC. e. Antony concentrated his army and fleet at the Cape of Acacia in Greece, and Octavian’s troops arrived here and defeated Antony’s fleet. After which Octavian's troops approached Alexandria. Antonian, left without an army, stabbed himself. After these events, Octavian proclaimed himself emperor, and they began to call him Augustus, which means sacred. After these events, Octavian proclaimed himself emperor, and they began to call him Augustus, which means sacred.

Culture of the Roman Empire Roman culture developed under the influence of the cultures of many peoples, primarily the Etruscans and Greeks. Using foreign achievements, the Romans surpassed their teachers in many areas, raising the overall level of their own development to unprecedented heights. In turn, Roman culture at its peak had a huge influence on neighboring peoples and on the subsequent development of Europe. The Romans, having adopted their agricultural implements from the Greeks, significantly improved them. Rome is the birthplace of window glass. Architecture played a leading role in art. The overriding principle of expediency, clarity and courage of engineering thinking made it possible to satisfy the everyday needs of a large population, and the sophisticated aesthetic taste of aristocrats (their villas with parks and palaces had fabulous prices). Etruscan traditions in architecture and the invention of concrete allowed the Romans to move from simple beam ceilings to arches, vaults and domes. The Romans went down in history as outstanding builders. They erected monumental structures, even the ruins of which still amaze the imagination. These include amphitheatres, circuses, stadiums, baths (public baths), palaces of emperors and nobility. In Rome, they built apartment buildings - insula - with 3 - 6 floors, sometimes even 8 floors. Roman builders used concrete extensively. The Pantheon temple (11th century) was built almost entirely from concrete, the dome of which with a diameter of 43 m remained intact until the middle of the 19th century. The foundation of the Colosseum (1st century) with a depth of 5 m was built from concrete. Fortresses, bridges, aqueducts, port piers, roads, etc.

At the beginning of our era, the Romans invented water mills with a wheel, which for many centuries, until modern times, remained the basis of energy. Household utensils were more diverse than in Greece. In addition to clay, bronze and glass utensils were widely used. There were special devices for heating water and heating rooms, the operating principle of which was reminiscent of a samovar. Clothing, as in Greece, was not sewn (for men - a tunic and toga, for women - a tunic and table); A variety of raincoats became widespread. During the reign of Augustus (27 BC) Rome became the world capital. An unprecedented flowering of art and construction began. The buildings were decorated with porticos and reliefs. The partially preserved palaces of the Yulias, Flavians, and Severians are striking in their size. Columns and triumphal arches were erected even in the provinces. Based on the Greek tradition, wall paintings of various styles were created, which were discovered by excavations in Pompeii. The achievement of Roman sculpture is the portrait. The Etruscans started this genre in Europe. Since spiritual and moral ideals in society were subject to constant revision, the portrait also evolved. Sculptural images of the Republican era are characterized by laconic forms and sharp lines. The Imperial Rome of Augustus returned to the artistic ideals of Greece, gradually introducing into them its rationality, pomp and pomp. Subsequently, these two trends merged and a new genre was born - bold, generalized portraits that conveyed individual traits and at the same time created a holistic image of the individual. The portrait made the inner world of a person accessible.

The sculptors abandoned frontal compositions and gradually abandoned excessive detail: the most characteristic things stood out in the face, spare lines and large forms made the portrait monumental and expressive at the same time. The portrait also changed in terms of the mood conveyed: from strength and cruelty in the era of the fight against barbarians - to religious submission to fate by the 5th century. AD The beginning of Roman literature was laid by the Greeks with their translations into Latin of the Odyssey and other classic works (Livy Andronicus, Lucilius). The first truly outstanding writer (comedian) was Titus Maccius Plautus. The characters and plots in the comedies of Publius Terence Afra are more psychological. His “serious” comedy is a reworking of the Greek one. But if in “native” comedies the viewer knew everything from the very beginning and was amused by the characters’ ignorance, then Terence put the viewer in the same position as the heroes of the play, an element of unpredictability appeared. However, contemporaries valued Terence more as a stylist - for the purity of his language.

Over the following years, the flourishing of literature was associated with the names of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Seneca, and Petronius. Interest in literature increased because the political struggle, which previously absorbed all the spiritual interests of society, lost all meaning. Augustus sought to control the literary process, to force literature to perform social functions according to his own order. Virgil’s creation of the Aeneid, an epic poem about the mythical divine ancestor of the Roman aristocracy and Augustus himself, can be regarded as the fulfillment of a state order. Just as the Iliad is an ideological understanding of the unity of the Greek nation, so the Aeneid is an awareness of the unity of Rome and Italy. However, it was in the Aeneid that true national patriotism sounded with a clear note for the first time. The development of the art of eloquence and the desire to preserve it contributed to the development of prose. The novel appeared in both Greece and Rome. Historical narratives, which became very common in Rome, were designed to compensate for the lack of their own mythology. During the era of the empire, the religions of the East and Egyptian cults were very popular.

Culture

Decline and Death of the Roman Empire The cause of the death of the Roman Empire is slavery. The slaves did not want to accept their situation. They burned their owners' houses, broke tools, and mutilated livestock. They worked extremely poorly. The cause of the death of the Roman Empire is slavery. The slaves did not want to accept their situation. They burned their owners' houses, broke tools, and mutilated livestock. They worked extremely poorly. Soon the first slave uprisings began. They were especially strong in Africa and Gaul. Rome lacked the means to defend its vast borders. With difficulty they suppressed the uprisings. Soon the first slave uprisings began. They were especially strong in Africa and Gaul. Rome lacked the means to defend its vast borders. With difficulty they suppressed the uprisings. Many slave owners were interested in preserving the empire. Therefore, they supported Emperor Diolectinus. He destroyed the last republican posts and strengthened his power. Diolectinus gathered a large army and invaded Gaul with it. He destroyed the rebellious tribes, brutally dealt with the rebels and strengthened the borders of his possessions. Many slave owners were interested in preserving the empire. Therefore, they supported Emperor Diolectinus. He destroyed the last republican posts and strengthened his power. Diolectinus gathered a large army and invaded Gaul with it. He destroyed the rebellious tribes, brutally dealt with the rebels and strengthened the borders of his possessions. After the death of Emperor Diolectinus, the struggle for power in Rome began with renewed vigor. Emperor Constantine won this fight. He recognized a new religion, Christianity, in Rome. He founded the new capital of the Roman Empire - the city of Constantinople. The empire was divided into two parts. After the death of Emperor Diolectinus, the struggle for power in Rome began with renewed vigor. Emperor Constantine won this fight. He recognized a new religion, Christianity, in Rome. He founded the new capital of the Roman Empire - the city of Constantinople. The empire was divided into two parts. After the weakening of the Roman Empire, the onslaught of barbarians hit the empire with renewed vigor. The barbarian tribes united into powerful alliances and approached Rome. At night, the slaves opened the gates to the barbarians and they entered the city. Thus, the city, before which the entire ancient world trembled, ceased to exist. After the weakening of the Roman Empire, the onslaught of barbarians hit the empire with renewed vigor. The barbarian tribes united into powerful alliances and approached Rome. At night, the slaves opened the gates to the barbarians and they entered the city. Thus, the city, before which the entire ancient world trembled, ceased to exist.