0 0 0 0
by pavlofox, 11/17/2017
In this article we will tell you how the first books were made and the first books were printed.
Representatives of ancient civilizations were not satisfied with the oral method of transmitting information.
Yes, folk memory makes it possible to remember facts, legends and stories for a long time, but the data is distorted, which required reliable methods of recording information.
Presentation “The history of books” presentation for the lesson (middle group)
Slide 1
“The history of the origin of books” Prepared by teacher 1 KK Puchkova N.S.
Slide 2
A long time ago, people lived in caves and hunted mammoths and wild bulls. They needed to share knowledge and skills among themselves. Therefore, ancient people began to make drawings on the walls of their caves. These drawings are called stone books; they are considered the very first of all books. In them, a person first expressed and depicted his thought. Our ancestors were inventive people; they began to use everything that the surrounding nature offered them to make their first books. Residents found material for writing literally under their feet - it was clay.
Slide 3
Ordinary people wove their homes from reeds and coated them with clay; huge palace-temples were also made from clay bricks. Dishes were made from clay. It is not surprising that books began to be made from clay. These books were not like modern ones. On the still damp and soft clay tablet, the scribe squeezed out words-icons with a sharp stick. Then this board was dried and fired. One page of the clay book was as thick as the whole book is now. They were stored in large wooden boxes.
Slide 4
Papyrus was invented in Ancient Egypt. It was made from a plant that grew along the banks of the Nile River. Its stem was split into ribbons. They were laid in several layers and pressed on top with heavy stones. Several of these pieces were joined into a long strip and rolled into a scroll. It was kept in a leather case.
Slide 5
In Rus', birch bark - birch bark - was used for writing for a long time. Words on birch bark were carefully written with sharp bone or bronze sticks. Birch bark, as a very cheap and fragile material, was mostly used for personal notes and correspondence. For example, you could write a letter, prayers and spells on it, or make educational notes.
Slide 6
Parchment was used for important documents. They made it from skins. It was stronger than papyrus and birch bark, and could be written on both sides. The parchment was folded into four and then sewn together. The cover was made of wood and covered with leather. Parchment was very expensive: one book required a whole herd of calves.
Slide 7
Then a new material appeared that was much thinner than parchment. It was very easy to write on. This is paper. The recipe for making paper was invented in China. All countries admired this wonder, but the Chinese kept the wonderful method secret. Only centuries later Europe learned how to perform this miracle.
Slide 8
In Rus' they also began to create books from paper, but they were handwritten. The first handwritten books in Rus' appeared in the 10th century. There were few books, and they were expensive, worth their weight in gold.
Slide 9
To better preserve books, bindings were made from wooden planks. They were covered with thin leather or expensive fabric. The first printed books appeared in Germany. The modern method of printing was invented by the German Johann Guttenberg.
Slide 10
In Rus', Ivan Fedorov became the first printer. He was an educated man, knew several languages, including ancient Greek and Latin. The first Russian printed book is “Apostle”. Although the book was printed, its font and illustrations resembled handmade work.
Slide 11
Now modern high-speed printing machines are used to produce books. Production lines are used that, without human intervention, produce covers and attach them to the book block. The text is typed by the authors on computers.
Slide 12
Modern books
Slide 13
The book is the greatest treasure of humanity, a storehouse of wisdom, a source of knowledge.
Slide 14
Thank you for your attention!!!!
Lesson for 4th grade “The history of the book”
| History of the book |
Ancient books
The Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians and many of their neighbors wrote on clay tablets. The material was cheap, but due to the size of the signs, the texts on them were short. Therefore, major works, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, or the story of the beginning of the world, were recorded on several tablets. Collections of tablets existed at temples and royal palaces. Archaeologists excavated the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (7th century BC), on the shelves of which there were more than 20 thousand tablets with various texts.
Photos of clay tablets
The ancient Egyptians invented a more convenient writing material - papyrus, which they made from specially processed papyrus stems that grew in abundance along the banks of the Nile. Individual sheets were glued together into a long strip, a scroll. On such scrolls, which reached a length of up to 1000 m, religious texts, fairy tales, teachings, legends, and chronicles were written down. Papyrus is a loose material, so it was possible to write on it only on one side: the ink, applied with a pointed reed stick, penetrated the entire depth. In addition, papyrus is fragile, so you cannot bend its sheets and sew them into notebooks. For a long time in the Mediterranean countries, papyrus was the most common type of writing material. In Egypt it was produced for export.
The scrolls were kept in chests and wall niches. Some texts were intended specifically for burials; many of them have survived to this day. The Egyptians also wrote on linen fabrics. Such fabrics, in particular, were used to wrap mummies. The texts were sometimes accompanied by drawings.
Photos of papyrus scrolls
All texts were handwritten. The only known exception is the so-called Phaistos Disc, found in Crete and made in the 17th century. BC. This hitherto unread text was applied to the wet clay in a manner similar to mechanical: the characters were cut out on dies and imprinted on the raw clay.
When in the 9th – 8th centuries. BC. The Greeks developed an alphabetic writing, they began to write on palm leaves, linden bast, linen fabrics and even on lead scrolls. However, papyrus remained the main material. Later, in Rome and Greece, wooden signs coated with wax or plastered began to be used. They were widely used in schools. The old text on the wax could be erased and a new one written. If the texts were long and were placed on several tablets, they were linked. This created a bundle that was called the code. It was similar to the books we are familiar with, which were also called codices when they began to write on parchment. In the ancient world, literacy was quite common. The need for literate people became especially acute in the Roman Empire. Fragile papyrus could not suit government authorities and reading enthusiasts: the lifespan of papyrus scrolls is about 200 years. However, it took a long time to put up with the fragility of papyrus. In Greece already in the 5th century. BC. The book trade arose (bookstores were first called libraries). Personal libraries also appeared, for example, those of the great philosophers Plato and Aristotle. The texts were different; among them are philosophical and generally scientific works, poetry, epic works, recordings of tragedies and comedies, etc. In the 3rd century. BC. the most famous library of antiquity arose - the Alexandria library in Egypt. In the 1st century BC. it contained about 700 thousand scrolls.
In the 1st century BC. public libraries, organized according to the principle that has survived to this day: with catalogues, librarians, storage, where readers are not allowed, appeared in Rome. The publication of books was required. Since errors crept into the texts during correspondence, they began to be compared, and editors and proofreaders appeared, as in modern publishing houses.
Books of "AD"
Finally, the ancient world acquired a new durable material - parchment (named after the city of Pergamum in Asia Minor, where it was produced). Parchment was made from sheep, calf, goat and even cat skins. The material was durable, but it could take a whole herd to make one book. The sheets could be folded and stitched. They wrote on parchment on both sides and not only with reed sticks, but also with bird feathers. The stitched sheets formed a codex. These codices began to replace papyrus scrolls, and in the Roman Empire in the libraries of the nobility there were scrolls from the 3rd century. AD no longer held. Parchment notebooks were used in schools.
Parchment books were made very carefully and decorated. The sheets were painted purple or black, and the letters were silver or gold. The traditions of making parchment books - codices - were inherited later by Byzantium and medieval European states.
Photos of books on parchment
The need for reproduction of texts was increasing, and the capabilities of scribes were limited. And from the 4th – 5th centuries. BC. In Chinese monasteries, they began to carve relief texts and icons in mirror images from wood. By smearing them with paint, it was possible to obtain a larger number of prints.
There was no such convenient raw material as papyrus in China. Here they began to experiment with what we now call “recyclables” - rags. Hemp fiber and tree bark were added to it, kneaded in vats, and the resulting mass was passed through rectangular sieves. A layer remained on the sieves, which after processing became a sheet of paper. In the 4th century. An imperial decree was issued that paper was becoming a commonly used material.
In China in the V-VIII centuries. AD they made impressions from inscriptions and images on stone, which were very valuable; to obtain their embossed parts, they covered them with paint and applied sheets of paper to them. This way it was possible to obtain the required number of prints.
Texts and images were carved into mirror images on wooden boards. The board was coated with paint. The resulting prints were first mounted into a scroll, and then they began to fold it like a screen. Later we realized that it is much more convenient to glue the sheets from the outside; in the XIV – XV centuries. they began to stitch them.
Much more convenient than a solid board with text are separate signs, from which you can compose different texts. The first to think of this was in the 11th century. blacksmith Pi Shen. Maybe it occurred to him while he was working with composite casting molds. He suggested typing the text from clay signs placed in a special frame. In the 13th century Such signs - letters - began to be made from tin and wood, and in Korea - from copper.
It is no coincidence that all these inventions were made in China: they have always respected science. According to legend, from the 6th to the 5th centuries. BC. There were libraries in China. Scientists compiled encyclopedias. One of the first encyclopedias dates back to the 10th century. In the 15th century 2,169 scientists created an encyclopedia of 11,915 volumes. There were even periodicals in China: in the 7th – 10th centuries. The newspaper "Stolichnye Vedomosti" was published.
In Europe, with the fall of the Roman Empire, libraries perished. But literate people were very necessary for the rulers of the new states. Books were necessary for the church. Monasteries became the centers of book culture in medieval Europe, where liturgical books were copied and experts on ancient texts could detect copyist errors. A lot of liturgical books were required. In workshops for copying books (scriptoria), some monks wrote lines on parchment sheets, others wrote in neat, even handwriting. Artists decorated manuscripts with ornaments and miniatures. The bindings were made of wood and covered with leather or fabric, sometimes with beautiful pieces of metal and precious stones inserted into them. The books were real works of art. The material continued to be parchment, sometimes painted purple. They wrote with reed sticks, bird feathers, and occasionally with metal feathers. The ink was black, red, sometimes blue, yellow, purple. Books were very expensive. In Spain, they once received 200 sheep, 3 barrels of grain and 3 marten skins for a collection of sermons. They gave two calves for a school textbook.
Literacy was increasingly valued. Craftsmen and traders tried to teach their children to read and write. Noble people were often highly educated. Spain had libraries during the Renaissance. Paper came to Europe from the Arabs. It is believed that they borrowed the method of making it from the Chinese. The Arabs ground hemp and other ingredients using millstones. In Damascus and Cairo, entire streets were inhabited by craftsmen who produced various types of paper, including the finest paper for deep mail. The Arabs also borrowed from the Chinese methods of printing from various boards. The cheapness of the material made it possible to produce many more books than was previously possible. For example, in China and Spain alone, 16-18 thousand books were published annually.
In Rus', books appeared with the adoption of Christianity. The Kyiv princes invited copyists and translators. They also wrote on parchment. Novgorodians wrote letters to each other on birch bark. Their children learned to write by scratching letters on its white surface. Birch bark was also used later. Information has been preserved that Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity Monastery, was so poor that the books in his monastery were made of birch bark. The oldest Russian parchment book is the Gospel of the 11th century, written for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir. It is decorated with miniatures and ornaments. At this time in Rus', the book was mainly of religious content: the Gospel, psalters, “selections”, which included fragments of sacred scripture, sayings of the sages, information about history, articles on logic, oratory. Such “collections” also included excerpts from the works of ancient philosophers that were preserved in Byzantium.
Books took a very long time to create. The Ostromir Gospel was written for about seven months, one and a half pages a day. Parchment before the 15th century. brought from Greece and the West. They made their own, but it was of low quality. The oldest written record and paper book date back to the 14th century. Paper was first obtained from the East, then from Europe. It was expensive, but still cheaper than parchment.
In the XIV – XV centuries. In Europe, book making went beyond the walls of monasteries. Now artisans did this, and merchants traded books. Education became more and more secular, and interest in the exact sciences increased. Books were no longer so expensive: in the middle of the 13th century. paper began to be made in Italy in the 14th century. in France, then in Germany, England. In Holland, windmills were used to make it.
In the middle of the 15th century. Cheap books spread throughout Western Europe. They were printed on paper sheets in entire wooden matrices.
And finally, Gutenberg, a jeweler, engraver, and stone carver, invented printing. He was the first to use collapsible type, although it is believed that he had predecessors in Europe.
Metal letters - typefaces for the font were cast from an alloy in which lead predominated. They were placed on a pressure box from where the typesetter took the necessary ones and selected a line in a special frame. The line was laid out on the typesetting board. The set for the page was wrapped with a harsh thread so that it would not move apart, and smeared with printing ink made from soot and linseed oil (drying oil). A framed sheet of moistened paper was placed on top of the set. After drying the sheet, an imprint of the reverse side text was made on it. The printing press was manual. The finished sheets were smoothed under a press, piled, leveled and intertwined. Gutenberg's first books appeared in Germany in the forties of the 15th century. The ground was prepared for this invention: by the end of 1500, books were already being published in 200 - 300 cities in Europe, where 1100 - 1700 printing houses operated. They printed 35 - 45 thousand publications, and their total circulation could reach 20 million. During the first 50 years of printing, humanity received more books than hundreds of years before.
Gutenberg Bible
In the 15th century printing spread throughout Europe. In Eastern Europe, one of the first figures in book printing was Francis Skorina. He knew the Church Slavonic language well, studied at several universities in Europe and was inspired by the ideas of enlightening the people. Slavic books were printed in Venice already in the 15th century. Skaryna apparently received equipment and paper from Germany.
Books after the invention of printing
The invention of printing significantly reduced the value of manuscripts, but did not immediately destroy their production: the first printed books were copies of modern manuscripts.
Nevertheless, other wealthy book lovers still preferred hand-written manuscripts by the best masters over factory-produced printed books: but the struggle of 16th-century calligraphers with the printing press was hopeless and short-lived. And only in Russia among the Old Believers does the manuscript compete with the book until the 19th century.
Already in the 16th century, a cheaper book began to serve the interests of the day and became noticeably democratized: it became accessible and interesting not only to seriously educated people, but also to the masses. The book penetrates into the female half of a merchant's or poor landowner's house, and even into village taverns. The book is as often used for amusement as for edification.
In the 17th century, due to improvements in printing, book production progressed in quantity, cheapness and beauty.
In accordance with the distinctive feature of the science of the 17th century, which worked not for the public, but for a select few, it was in this century that multi-volume tomes appeared in large numbers, absorbing decades of the lives of the authors and compiled with amazing learning and thoroughness (Ducange, Lambetius, Bolland, etc. ). In the same and the next century, scientific and literary journals appeared in large numbers.
Books in the 18th century
The 18th century, the century of enlightenment par excellence, elevated the book to unprecedented heights. It is enough to name Voltaire to make it clear what power a cleverly written book had at that time. Diderot's famous “Encyclopedia” clearly shows that thick, expensive books at that time began to be intended for the masses of educated people, for the middle class.
The 18th century is the time of the birth and development of Russian printed books. It arose under Peter, and under Catherine II it gained strength and spread (in the interim, progress was very slow, and even in the first years of Catherine’s reign, the most popular satirical magazines sold 200-300 copies).
Since the 80s, entire libraries of classics and translated novels have been published. Hundreds of their own imitations of the latter come out. Even the mystical books of the Masons are published in several editions. Russian people have learned to read and even buy books. N.I. Novikov worked especially usefully for this. At the same time, we begin to take care of the external beauty of the book: even many government publications, even charters, are decorated with elegant vignettes.
Books in the 19th century
In the first quarter of the 19th century, two phenomena of great importance emerged in the history of the development of the book. A good book began to enrich the author - enrich not through gifts and pensions from the rich or the government, but through buyers, the public.
Famous writers become rich, and literary work, under favorable conditions, provides even an ordinary worker with the means to a comfortable existence. On the other hand, enterprising publishers (one of the first was Constable in England) set themselves the highly useful task of reducing the cost of a good book to such an extent that any moderately wealthy person could, without great expense, build himself an entire library.
Having appeared in the advanced countries of Europe, this phenomenon became universal by the middle of the century: not only authors trying to adapt to the tastes of the public (for example, Dumas the Father), but also the majority of talented writers who are completely independent (for example, Victor Hugo) can live comfortably on income from selling their books. At the same time, they become a major political force.
The extreme reduction in price of a good book (with the exception of special cases: New World editions, a complete Shakespeare for 1 shilling) becomes possible only in the third quarter of the century, but now it is moving forward with rapid steps: thanks to such publishers as Advertising (Universal Bibliothek) in Germany, Sonzogno in Italy and so on, now for tens of rubles you can collect a library of classics of all times and peoples, which at the beginning of the century cost thousands.
Entire libraries of useful books are published beautifully and correctly especially for the people at a price that, with its cheapness, kills bad popular prints. In Germany, and beyond it everywhere, even luxurious, beautifully illustrated books are so cheap that they are not a rarity on the shelf of a primary school teacher.
If 70 years ago Greece received from France both paper and type for government publications and textbooks, then in the middle of the 19th century thousands of books were published annually, including many cheap publications for the people and the poor.
In Russia, already from the first 10 years of the 19th century, significant progress has been noticeable in the book business: the first volumes of Karamzin’s history, published in 1818, sold out in a few weeks. Bulgarin’s unsuccessful, now forgotten novel “Ivan Vyzhigin,” published in 1829, brought the author huge amounts of money for that time. Enterprising publishers who sincerely love their work, like Smirdin, are appearing.
Since the beginning of the reign of Alexander II in Russia, the book has become a major social force. In the last quarter of a century, cheap libraries for the middle class have appeared, which no longer bankrupt entrepreneurs as before. Domestic classics are published at a price that makes them accessible to poor people.
As for popular, penny publications, undertaken for semi-charitable purposes by literacy committees and other public institutions, as well as some private firms, in their strict choice of content, cheapness and elegance they can compete with German and English ones.
Books in the 20th century
In the twentieth century, in an environment of extremely rapid growth of printed information and the widespread dissemination of new means of mass communication (radio, television, cinema, the Internet), new problems arise for the book: clarification of a specific function in the general system of means of mass communication, improvement of book organization (mastery of new printed materials , miniaturization of publications, optimization of reading, inclusion of sound recordings and stereoscopic images in scientific and educational books), improving the quality of printing, and others.
Tales for princes
During the Peter the Great era, the number of publications for children increased. Books on etiquette appeared, the most famous of which was “An Honest Mirror of Youth,” a textbook on European social manners. Educated children of the 18th century were fond of foreign novels - they translated mainly French, German and English books. Aesop's fables, Robinson Crusoe and Gulliver's Travels were popular.
Portrait of Catherine II. Painting by Fyodor Rokotov. 1735–1808. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
Catherine II. The fairy tale “About Tsarevich Chlor”. Image: pushkinmuseum.ru
Catherine II. The fairy tale “About Tsarevich Fevey”. Image: arch.rgdb.ru
Domestic children's books also appeared in the 18th century. Among the authors who turned to literature for children was Catherine II herself. The Empress was inspired by the pedagogical ideas of the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau that a child should develop in accordance with his age. For her grandchildren, Catherine published an ABC book and wrote two fairy tales: “About Tsarevich Chlorus” and “About Tsarevich Fevey.” These books are today considered the first children's works in Russian. Both stories were allegorical and didactic in nature. For example, the hero of the first fairy tale, Prince Chlorus, was looking for a rose without thorns with the help of advisers - Reason, Honesty and Truth - in order to become a better ruler.
