Science and education of the 19th century
The 19th century is called by many the time of science. Discoveries were made in incredible quantities, because they were so necessary for the developing industry. Also in the 19th century, the level of education increased significantly in all countries.
Maria Sklodowska-Curie
said: “Science is the basis of all progress that makes human life easier and reduces his suffering.”
During the lesson we will talk about scientific achievements in the field of physics, biology and medicine, and also consider the development of the education system in Europe and America.
The rapid pace of the industrial revolution required scientists to find new ways of working and create various instruments. The most studied areas were physics, biology and chemistry. Let's take a closer look at the most important discoveries.
Michael Faraday
was born in 1791 in London into a poor family.
At the age of 13, he dropped out of school to help his family with money. He worked as a delivery boy at a bookstore. Then he became a bookbinder's apprentice there.
Michael read a lot, he was especially interested in books on chemistry and physics. At home, Faraday tried to conduct experiments. The support of his relatives, who helped Michael as much as they could, played a big role in his development as a scientist.
He attended scientific society lectures and was a laboratory assistant at the Royal Academy. Michael Faraday's efforts were not in vain. He discovered
the phenomenon of electromagnetism and learned to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The scientist realized that electric current can be generated when the magnetic field changes.
Based on this, Faraday created the first electric motor and the first transformer.
His inventions made a great contribution to the development of industry. By the way, we still encounter them. doorbell, a vacuum cleaner, and a hair dryer operate on the basis of electromagnetic induction.
.
The unit of measurement of electrical capacitance is named after Faraday. And the Royal Society of London awards the Faraday Prize for the popularization of science in Great Britain.
James Clark Maxwell
was born in 1831 in Scotland
.
His family belonged to an old family. James received a good education, worked at Cambridge, and was a professor at the University of Aberdeen.
In his youth he became interested in color theory
and throughout his life he studied
light phenomena
.
His most important discovery was the electromagnetic theory of light
.
He believed that electromagnetic oscillations
, invisible to the eye. And they can transmit electricity.
His theory later found application in the creation of
radio communications, radar and television.
By the way, it was Maxwell who took the first
color photograph
.
's theory was confirmed by another scientist -
Heinrich Hertz
,
born in 1857 in
Hamburg .
He scientifically proved the existence of electromagnetic waves and that there are no objects that can stop them.
In memory of this discovery, radio inventor Alexander Popov transmitted the first telegram in 1896, the text of which consisted of two words “Heinrich Hertz”. The unit of frequency measurement was named in honor of the scientist -
Hertz
.
Physicists paid much attention to the structure of substances.
Henrik Lorentz
studied the structure of atoms .
And George Stoney proposed to call the unit of electric charge
“
electron
”. Later, scientists found out that the electron is not an independent particle, but a component of an atom.
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
became the first ever Nobel Prize winner in physics.
He is credited with the discovery
of invisible X-rays
capable
of penetrating objects.
The use of these rays made it possible to see what was hidden under a layer of some substance and capture it on photographic film.
X-rays are widely used in medicine. A device was created with which it was possible to examine the patient’s internal injuries. The discovery brought Roentgen enormous popularity.
There is a known case when an English sailor wrote a letter to a scientist in which he said that he was wounded in the chest, but the doctors could not find the bullet. The sailor asked to send some rays in an envelope so that the doctors could use them, and promised to return them back as soon as the bullet was discovered.
Roentgen's discovery needed to be studied in more detail, because this is an important step in the history of the development of physics.
Antoine Henri Becquerel
discovered that some chemical elements emit radiation during the decomposition of atomic nuclei. This phenomenon is called radioactivity
.
Pierre Curie and his wife Marie Sklodowska-Curie
made a great contribution to its study .
Maria Sklodowska showed a desire to learn from early childhood. She was distinguished by her hard work and diligence. Maria sacrificed everything in order to obtain a university diploma.
She soon became the first female teacher in the history of
nny. Together with her husband Pierre Curie, she studied radioactivity.
In
1898, they discovered a new element, which was named Polonium
,
in honor of Mary’s homeland - Poland.
In 1903, Henri Becquerel and the Curies were awarded the Nobel Prize for their research.
In 1911, Marie Sklodowska Curie received this prize for the second time. During the First World War, Maria was involved in the equipment of portable X-ray machines that helped during operations.
Discoveries made in the field of physics and chemistry created a new picture of the world.
A real revolution in the views of mankind was made by the naturalist scientist
Charles Darwin
. From early childhood he was interested in natural sciences and collecting insects.
At the age of 22, Charles set off on a voyage around the world on the Beagle .
", it lasted for 5 whole years. During this time, the scientist collected rich material for research.
Analyzing his findings, Darwin came to the conclusion that
all living things were not created by God, but were formed in the process of long development
.
In
1859 he published
On
the Origin of Species
.
Charles Darwin put forward the theory of natural selection, according to which only the fittest individuals survive. And in 1871,
he published the book “
The Descent of Man
,”
in which he substantiated that man descended from the ape through a long evolution
. Until now, this theory has both supporters and opponents.
In
the 19th century, the science of microbiology
.
Its founder was Louis Pasteur
.
He proved that in nature there are microorganisms that can both harm and benefit humans.
Pasteur tried to identify the causative agents of such terrible diseases as rabies, cholera and anthrax. He proposed a vaccination method to protect people from these diseases.
On July 6, 1885,
a nine-year-old boy received his first rabies vaccination
.
The scientist also proposed a technology for disinfection and long-term storage of products, which was called
«
pasteurization
».
Robert Koch
was also a microbiologist .
He was able to discover the anthrax bacillus and the microbe that causes cholera.
An invaluable contribution to the development of medicine was his discovery of the causative agent
of tuberculosis
.
A huge number of people died from this disease in Europe, and doctors did not know how to deal with it. Robert Koch used dyes to discover tiny rods of bright blue color. They were later called " Koch sticks
". This happened in 1882.
Various inventions were widely used in medicine. In
1816, Reneau Laennec invented a stethoscope , with which it was possible to listen to the heart and lungs of a person.
It was a tube with a shell for the ear. The stethoscope helped determine the development of tuberculosis.
Such rapid development of science is impossible without changes in the education system
. Previously, education was available only to the upper strata of society, those who could pay for tuition in private schools.
However, in the 19th century, industrialization and vibrant political life required an educated society. Gradually, reforms in this area began to be carried out in many countries.
In most German states, universal primary education appeared in the 18th century. However, it was heavily influenced by the Catholic Church.
In England, in
1870, entrepreneur and representative of the Liberal Party William Foster put forward the Universal Primary Education Act.
State boarding schools began to be created, but tuition in them remained paid.
In 1880, the Law “On Primary Education” appeared.
Children between the ages of 5 and 10 were required to attend school. However, many parents sent their children to work instead of studying. Then they began to conduct inspections of entrepreneurs who employed minors.
In
1891,
“
On Free Education
was passed , and
the state began to pay for children’s education.
Higher education also developed in England. In
1826, the University of London
was opened ,
which differed from the religious Oxford and Cambridge.
Here, more attention was paid to the exact sciences, and the Department of Economics and Politics was opened. Here, for the first time, women began to be accepted for training. And since the 50s of the 19th century, courses have been organized for working residents of London.
In France, in 1881 and 1882, laws were passed that introduced compulsory free primary education for children from 6 to 13 years of age.
. In the last years of school, children received vocational training.
Higher education in France was concentrated within
the Imperial University
,
founded by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1808.
He united all universities into one institution. The teaching system here was separated from religion.
Education has developed rapidly in the United States of America
. The young state paid great attention to the training of specialists in various fields of activity.
Primary education was free and available to both boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 14. In 1821, the first public high school was opened. And in big cities, higher schools were created for students from 14 to 18 years old.
In the 19th century, Americans were the first to introduce the practice of coeducating boys and girls.
The USA led in the number of higher education institutions. Harvard, Pennsylvania, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Dartmouth and Brown, opened at the end of the 18th century.
universities.
In
1868, Cornell University
was opened in New York .
Thus, the development of industrialization required deep scientific knowledge, which quality education could provide.
Discoveries were made in the field of physics and structure of substances. Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism. James Maxwell put forward the theory of electromagnetic waves, and Heinrich Hertz confirmed it.
Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays that could penetrate various objects.
Antoine Becquerel, Pierre Curie and Marie Skłodowska-Curie were awarded the Nobel Prize for their study of the phenomenon of radioactivity.
In
the 19th century, the view of humans as a biological species changed.
Charles Darwin put forward a new theory of human origins, which went against the existing religious theory. The science of microbiology began to develop. Its founder was Louis Pasteur. And Robert Koch was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the causative agent of tuberculosis.
The education system developed in Europe and the USA. Primary education became universal and free.
Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century. presentation for a history lesson (8th grade) on the topic
Slide 1
Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century.
Slide 2
“... you cannot be a patriot of today without relying on the rich heritage of our ancestors. Knowledge of the past of the Fatherland makes a person richer in spirit, stronger in character and smarter in mind. History instills in him the necessary sense of national pride! History requires us to respect ourselves, just like our grandfather’s graves, and the culture of a people always depends on how much the people value and know their past...” (V. Pikul. “Night Flight”) Plan 1. Development of education. 2. Advances in natural sciences. 3. Development of geographical knowledge. 4. Development of humanistic sciences. Homework.
Slide 3
1. Development of education 1 / 2 The abolition of serfdom and economic successes in the second half of the 19th century could not but entail profound changes in all areas of culture. The post-reform period was characterized by an increase in literacy and the development of education.
Slide 4
Beginning of the development of out-of-school education (1859) 1/2 Various forms of out-of-school education became widespread. In 1859, the first Sunday schools in Russia were organized in Kyiv. Then they appeared in other cities, by 1862 there were more than 300 of them. These schools were free. The curriculum in them was much broader than in public schools. Students were introduced to the basics of chemistry and physics, and geography and national history were also studied.
Slide 5
Mass opening of zemstvo schools (1864 - 1874) 1/2 Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parish churches, but the state did not have enough money to support them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type of primary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. Verbal counting. N.P. Bogdanov - Belsky. 1895
Slide 6
The main type of secondary school was gymnasium. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia, where 25 thousand people studied. A quarter of a century later, their number increased 3 times, and there were 70 thousand high school students. In the late 60s of the 19th century, the issue of female education was raised. By the beginning of the 90s, about 300 female secondary educational institutions were opened, with up to 75 thousand girls studying there. Women were allowed to attend lectures at universities as free listeners. Soon higher women's courses began to operate in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Gymnasium student
Slide 7
Higher education Universities are opening in Tomsk and Odessa. There are special higher educational institutions: Medical-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy of Technology, Mining, Transport, Electrical Engineering Institutes
Slide 8
Medical-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy Mining Institute Petrovsk Agricultural Academy
Slide 9
However, in general, the literacy rate of the population in Russia remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census For comparison: At the end of the 60s According to the 1897 census For comparison: at the end of the 60s
Slide 10
2. Development of science and technology The successes of industry were closely related to achievements in various branches of science and technology. Many discoveries of Russian scientists were of an applied nature and were widely used for applied purposes, becoming a significant contribution to world technical progress. 1867 - the work “On Average Values”, in which a theorem is given that underlies various questions in the theory of probability. Mathematician and mechanic and Pafnutiy Lvovich Chebyshev
Slide 11
Stoletov's discovery of the speed of light by A.G. Stoletov in 1876, measuring the ratio of electromagnetic and electrostatic units, obtained a value close to the speed of light. Stoletov's proposal to organize the measurement of this quantity, adopted by the First Congress of Electricians in 1881, contributed to the establishment of the electromagnetic theory of light. Physicist Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov
Slide 12
Yablochkov's invention of the electric arc lamp. In 1876, P.N. Yablochkov created an electric arc lamp. Soon Yablochkov's light bulbs illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world. Physicist Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov Candle Yablochkov
Slide 13
Mozhaisky's airplane In 1881, naval officer A.F. Mozhaisky designed the world's first airplane, however, its tests ended in failure. Physicist Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky
Slide 14
Blinov's caterpillar tractor In 1888, self-taught mechanic F.A. Blinov invented the caterpillar tractor.
Slide 15
Periodic table Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev D.I. Mendeleev was a scientist with diverse knowledge and interests (chemistry, physics, metrology, aeronautics, agriculture, economics, education. His discovery in 1869 of the periodic law of chemical elements, one of the basic laws of natural science, brought him worldwide fame. Mendeleev’s periodic system of elements shows that the chemical properties of elements, i.e., their qualities, are determined by the amount of their atomic weight.Thus, his discovery serves as a brilliant confirmation of one of the general laws of the development of nature - the law of the transition of quantity into quality.
Slide 16
Popov's report on radio communications Alexander Stepanovich Popov Professor A.S. Popov developed an electromagnetic oscillation generator; On April 25, 1895, at the Russian Physical Society, he demonstrated the receiver-transmitter he had made. In 1900, Popov's radio receiver was used for practical purposes to rescue fishermen in the Gulf of Finland. For his discovery, the scientist was awarded the Great Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. Radio Popova
Slide 17
At the World Exhibition in Paris, a collection of Russian soils collected by Dokuchaev was demonstrated 1 / 1 V.V. Dokuchaev laid the foundation for the science of the properties of various soils. In 1889, Dokuchaev’s published works were demonstrated at the World Exhibition in Paris and were awarded a gold medal. In the book “Our Steppes Before and Now,” the scientist outlined a plan to combat the drought that struck the black soil strip of Russia in 1891. This plan included measures to influence the nature of the steppes by planting forests. Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev
Slide 18
Scientists-naturalists Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov I.M. Sechenov created the doctrine of brain reflexes, carrying out a revolution in biology. He was the first to prove the unity and mutual conditionality of mental and physical phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is the result of the work of the brain.
Slide 19
Scientists-naturalists Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov I.I. Mechnikov and N.F. Gamaleya organized the first bacteriological station in Russia and developed methods to combat rabies. Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya
Slide 20
Przhevalsky's discovery of a species of wild horse (1879) Przhevalsky's expedition Modern zoologists managed to save an endangered species - “Przhevalsky's Horse”. This is the only wild horse left in the wild. It was discovered by Nikolai Przhevalsky in 1879 in the Gobi Desert, in Southern Mongolia. In the mid-twentieth century, there were only three dozen of these animals left, and they all lived in captivity. But now the existence of the rare species is no longer under threat: thanks to successful breeding, the wild horse is being released into the Mongolian steppes again.
Slide 21
Expeditions of Miklouho-Maclay Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay N.N. Miklouho-Maclay devoted his life to studying the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. He lived for two and a half years on the northeastern coast of New Guinea and was able to win the love and trust of its inhabitants. He made two difficult journeys to the interior of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, and lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. In 1881, he developed a project to create an independent state in New Guinea - the Papuan Union, designed to resist the colonialists.
Slide 22
Historical science Sergey Mikhailovich Solovyov S.M. Soloviev-professor, dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, rector of Moscow University. Author of the 29-volume “History of Russia since Ancient Times.” He belonged to the state school, which considered the state to be the driving force of historical development.
Slide 23
The beginning of Klyuchevsky’s scientific activity Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky Student of S. M. Solovyov V.O. In 1882, Klyuchevsky brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation “The Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus'” at Moscow University. Author of many historical studies and the “Course of Russian History”, which he taught at Moscow University. He attached great importance to the study of the socio-economic causes of historical events and phenomena. Students from all faculties gathered at V. O. Klyuchevsky’s lectures and, as a rule, they ended with a flurry of student applause.
Slide 24
Opening of the Historical Museum in Moscow The Historical Museum was founded in 1872 and opened in 1883. It is the largest repository of monuments of Russian history and culture. The Moscow City Duma gave away its own site for the construction of a museum.
Slide 25
Opening of the Hermitage to the public Since the mid-19th century, the number of museums has been growing. In addition to art and natural sciences, industrial, memorial, agricultural and local history museums are opening. In 1865, the Hermitage with its richest collections of Western European art became accessible to the public, and at the end of the century, the first state art museum in Russia, the Russian Museum, was established. The province also opens museums and art galleries and hosts industrial, art and trade exhibitions.
Slide 26
Homework: Make a table “Achievements of science in the second half of the 19th century” in your notebook. SCIENCE OF DISCOVERIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS (Who? What? When?) mathematics physics chemistry biology geography history 2. Paragraph 36.
Slide 27
Thank you for your attention!
Higher educational institutions of the 18th century
We talked about them on our website in the section “Achievements in the field of science and art” in the articles:
- "Education in the 17th century"
- "Foundation of Moscow University"
- "Institutions of higher education in the Russian Empire"
- "Foundation of the Academy of Arts"
- "First Russian Academy of Sciences".
In this article we will dwell on the history of the creation of the Medical-Surgical Academy.
Medical-Surgical Academy
Medical education in Russia in the 18th century was received at the medical faculty of Moscow University (since 1764), the Kalinkinsky (St. Petersburg) medical-surgical school, which was later transformed into the Imperial Medical-Surgical Institute, which was under the patronage of Catherine II, as well as in medical-surgical schools in St. Petersburg, Kronstadt, Moscow and Elizavetgrad. Since 1795, a 5-year training period was established in medical-surgical schools. In the first three years, general education subjects were studied, as well as anatomy, formulation, physiology, surgery, ophthalmology and other special disciplines. The 4th and 5th courses were mainly devoted to practice: practical classes and duty in the clinical wards of hospitals. After successfully passing the exams, school graduates received the title of healer.
St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy
On December 18, 1798, Emperor Paul I instructed A.I. Vasiliev (director of the Medical College) to prepare the material base for the opening of a higher medical educational institution in St. Petersburg - this date is considered the founding day of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy, which became the leading educational and scientific center of the Russian Empire for the training of doctors and the development of medicine. The Academy was created on the basis of the St. Petersburg and Kronstadt medical-surgical schools.
The governing body of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy was the conference. Good organization of the business and sufficient funding made it possible to quickly organize the training of doctors. The Academy had a good material base: anatomical theaters, physical and chemical laboratories, botanical gardens, and extensive libraries. The theoretical training of students was combined with medical practice, which allowed them, immediately after graduating from college, to perform the duties of doctors and pharmacists in full. Many graduates went to serve in the Russian army and navy, which suffered casualties during almost constant wars and conflicts.
Among the Academy’s graduates there are many famous scientists and doctors: P.F. Lesgaft (1861), N.F. Arendt (1805), E.S. Botkin (1889), V.M. Bekhterev (1878) and others.
About the Academy graduates
I. Oleshkevich “Portrait of N.F. Arendt"
N.F. Arendt and A.S. Pushkin
When Pushkin was mortally wounded in a duel by Dantes on January 27 (February 8), 1837, Arendt supervised his treatment and visited the wounded man several times a day. Pushkin’s lyceum friend Danzas wrote in his memoirs: “Arendt arrived and he also examined the wound. Pushkin asked him to tell him frankly what position he found him in, and added that whatever the answer was, he could not frighten him, but that he needed to know for sure his position in order to have time to make some necessary orders
“If so,” Arendt answered him, “then I must tell you that your wound is very dangerous and that I have almost no hope for your recovery.”
N.F. Arendt, together with the poet Zhukovsky, became an intermediary between Nicholas I and the dying poet: he conveyed Pushkin’s request to the Tsar to pardon his second Danzas, and from Nicholas I he brought Pushkin a note in which it was said that the poet should not worry about the future of his wife and children. According to the memoirs of P.A. Vyazemsky, “Arendt, who saw many deaths in his life both on the battlefield and on painful beds, walked away from his bed with tears in his eyes and said that he had never seen anything like this, such patience with such suffering.”
Social movements in the second half of the 19th century
The transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The social movement of the second half of the 19th century is divided into three main movements :
- Conservative trend. The founder of this ideology was Katkov, who was later joined by D. A. Tolstoy and K. P. Pobedonostsev. Conservatives believed that Russia could develop only according to three criteria: autocracy, nationality and Orthodoxy.
- Liberal trend. The founder of this movement was the prominent historian B. N. Chicherin, later he was joined by K. D. Kavelin and S. A. Muromtsev. Liberals advocated for a constitutional monarchy, individual rights and the independence of the church from the state.
- Revolutionary movement. The ideologists of this movement were initially A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later N.A. Dobrolyubov joined them. Under Alexander II, thinkers published the magazines Kolokol and Sovremennik. The views of the theoretical writers were based on a complete rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical systems. They believed that prosperity for everyone would come only under socialism, and socialism would come immediately bypassing the stage of capitalism and the peasantry would help it in this.
One of the founders of the revolutionary movement was M.A. Bakunin, who preached socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world Federation of communities in their place. The end of the 19th century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which were “Land and Freedom”, “Velikoross”, “People’s Retribution”, “Ruble Society”, etc. The introduction of revolutionaries into the peasant environment was advocated for the purpose of agitating them.
The peasants did not react in any way to the calls of the commoners to overthrow the government. This led to a split of revolutionaries into two camps: practitioners and theorists. Practitioners staged terrorist attacks and killed prominent government officials. The organization “Land and Freedom”, later renamed “People’s Will”, passed a death sentence on Alexander II. The sentence was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful attempts. The terrorist Grinevitsky threw a bomb at the Tsar’s feet.
