Development of artistic culture in the first half
XIX century At the beginning of the 19th century. Society's interest in works of literature and art has increased significantly. Appeared in the second half of the 18th century. The “enlightened reader” was interested not only in novels and poetry, but also in philosophical and historical works; he was fascinated by classical tragedy and comic opera. Home performances and musical evenings became a new and widespread phenomenon. Interest in collecting books and collecting has increased. All this contributed to the development of artistic culture .
An important feature of the development of literature and art of this period was the rapid change of artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles . A striking feature of the era was the increasing complexity of cultural life, the increasing mutual influence of various areas of culture - literature and history, philosophy and literature, painting and music.
The dominant trend in Russian and European art of the early 19th century. Classicism remained, as before. His followers chose classical ancient art as a model and sought to imitate it. However, Russian classicism also had some peculiarities. If in the second half of the 18th century, unlike the European one, it was more closely associated with the ideas of enlightening the people and liberating the oppressed, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars at the beginning of the 19th century. The works of classicism were based on the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland.
Sentimentalism, which emerged before the Patriotic War of 1812, unlike classicism, was addressed not to reason, but to the feelings and experiences of people. The foundations of this new direction were laid at the end of the 18th century. N. M. Karamzin (story “Poor Liza”).
One of the leading new trends in artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century. became romanticism. Its main distinguishing feature was the contrast of the romantic, ideal image of real life. Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, and the affirmation of a strong, liberated personality.
In the 20-50s. XIX century Another new direction, realism, is becoming widespread. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends of the new style was critical realism, which revealed the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works seemed to demand changes.
Lesson summary on the topic: “Artistic culture”
Lesson 23. Artistic culture
Target
: consider the main trends in the development of spiritual culture in the Age of Enlightenment; development of skills to analyze, compare, highlight the main thing, draw conclusions; to cultivate in students an attitude towards the cultural heritage of humanity, the ability to express their point of view on the role of spiritual culture in the development of society.
Lesson type
: school lecture
1. Classicism, Baroque and Rococo
.
In the atmosphere of social struggle of the era of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, on the basis of the artistic traditions of the Renaissance, as well as the achievements of humanistic and scientific thought at the end of the 16th-17th centuries. new artistic styles emerged.
Classicism was a direct continuation of the traditions of the artistic culture of the Renaissance. He was also characterized by admiration for ancient art, but his theoretical basis was the philosophical rationalism of the 17th century.
The French made a huge contribution to the development of the art and culture of classicism. It was in Descartes' homeland that the theoretical principles of the new style were developed. Supporters of classicism viewed a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic. They attached great importance to the educational role of art, believing that it should teach people resistance to the blows of fate, the ability to subordinate personal interests to public (state) interests, feelings to reason, passion to duty.
In architecture, the founder of classicism was the Italian architect Andrea Palladio. Its palace buildings are symmetrical in plan brick buildings with plastered facades, decorated in the style of the order architecture of Antiquity.
The principle of symmetry was also the basis of the regular garden, also called the French garden. In plan, it consisted of various geometric figures, symmetrically located on both sides of the main alley or canal. It was thanks to classicism that the principle of constructing not individual buildings and structures, but entire ensembles, the parts of which were in harmony with each other and with the environment, was established in architecture. The clearest example of this is the palace and park ensemble of the residence of the French kings in Versailles.
At the end of the 16th century. The Baroque style is formed. In contrast to classicism, Baroque addressed not so much the human mind as its feelings. The magnificent decoration of Catholic churches was supposed to convince believers of the superiority of Catholicism. The outlines of buildings became smooth and rounded. Volutes were widely used - architectural details in the form of a spiral curl. Convexities and recesses, half-columns, niches, cornices, and sculpture gave Baroque architecture relief, wave-like appearance, and created the illusion of movement. A striking example of it is the square and St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. The final look of this ensemble was given by the Italian architect and sculptor Lorenzo Bernini.
In the first half of the 18th century. The Rococo style comes into fashion. It is close to Baroque, but differs from it in greater sophistication and intricate decoration. Particularly characteristic of Rococo is the so-called rocaille, a stylized shell with numerous curls along the edges.
Stylistic diversity has proven beneficial to art. Painters, sculptors, architects, less bound by the conventions of art schools and styles, found scope for creative exploration. The works of outstanding masters of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries: the Dutch artists Rembrandt, the Spaniard Velazquez, the Frenchman Watteau, the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach - are distinguished by their bright individuality and do not fit into the framework of one or another dominant style.
2. Enlightenment classicism
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In the last third of the 18th century. classicism again becomes the main artistic style of European art. His theoretical principles turned out to be consonant with the ideals and goals of the Enlightenment.
Striving for perfection of form, architects also made sure that people would live comfortably in the houses they built. The ideal setting for a country house, most in keeping with human nature, was now considered not a regular French park, but a landscape park. Landscape parks first appeared in Great Britain, hence their second name - English. In painting, the influence of the Enlightenment was expressed primarily in the glorification of virtues and civic actions by artists. An example of this is the painting of the French painter Jacques Louis David “The Oath of the Horatii”. In music, the highest achievement of educational classicism was the work of composers who belonged to the Viennese classical school, especially Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.
In literature, the educational trend developed in Great Britain before other countries. Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe" is imbued with faith in reason and optimism. Arbitrariness, greed, suspicion, arrogance and other vices are criticized in Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels. The first work of educational literature in France was “Persian Letters” by Charles Montesquieu, which in an allegorical form denounced the morals and practices of absolutism. Voltaire’s “Philosophical Tales” are also imbued with critical pathos. The comedies of the French playwright Pierre Beaumarchais “The Barber of Seville” and “The Marriage of Figaro” are a caustic satire on the class system. Exorbitant ambition, which pushes a person to betrayal and betrayal of his duty, is exposed in the Wallenstein trilogy by the German playwright Friedrich Schiller.
3. Empire style
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Deep revolutionary upheavals, which at the end of the 18th century. France experienced it, and other European countries also experienced it under its influence; at first they did not violate the stylistic unity of art. It was still dominated by classicism, which was imbued with the innovative spirit of the Enlightenment, quite in tune with the ideals of the revolution. However, with the defeat of the revolution in classicism, the spirit of moderation and servility to the powers that be prevailed. This process is well illustrated by the creative fate of the French artist Jacques Louis David. During the revolution, he designed mass festivities and, on behalf of the Convention, created one of his most famous paintings, “The Death of Marat.” At the beginning of the 19th century. David becomes the court painter of Emperor Napoleon, on whose order he created the ceremonial paintings “Coronation” and “Napoleon at St. Bernard Pass.”
Based on classicism in the first half of the 19th century. Several artistic movements, sometimes called styles, have emerged. At the very beginning of the century, the Empire style arose in the Napoleonic Empire, which then spread to other countries. Initially, the Empire style was intended to glorify France and exalt its ruler. Like classicism, it made extensive use of ancient Roman architectural forms. Empire architecture was characterized by monumentality, impressive facades, and exquisite luxury of interior decoration. At the same time, Empire art instilled in people citizenship and a sense of duty to the state.
After the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, the tradition of classicism was developed by academic art. The largest representatives of this artistic movement were educated within the walls of art academies that trained painters, sculptors and architects (hence its name). Catering to the tastes and preferences of the ruling circles, these educational institutions imparted the classicism of the first half of the 19th century. a touch of moderation and political conservatism. One of the leading masters of the academic movement in painting was the French artist Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.
Although classicism occupied a dominant position in art and enjoyed the patronage of the authorities, many talented artists, writers, and musicians refused to follow its instructions, defending their creative individuality. The Spanish artist Francisco Goya does not fit into the framework of the dominant style at all. The theme of his paintings and graphic works was the tragic episodes of the liberation struggle against the French invaders, in which he himself took part. The English artist John Constable was the first in the history of European painting to paint landscapes from life. In music, Ludwig van Beethoven followed an independent creative path, breaking the usual canons of musical genres. The work of Johann Wolfgang Goethe sums up the search for educational thought and at the same time anticipates new phenomena in literature and art. The tragedy "Faust", on which the German writer worked for several decades, in an allegorical form summarizes the historical experience of an entire generation.
4. Romantic art
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In the first quarter of the 19th century. a new artistic style called romanticism was formed. This word was first used in relation to the painting by the French artist Theodore Gericault “The Raft of the Medusa”, created in 1818-1819. The picture was painted in the traditions of classical art. But the relevance of the topic, the depiction of different psychological states and moods of people brought to extreme tension, the dynamic composition - all this anticipated the features of the new style.
Romanticism was clearly manifested not only in painting, but also in sculpture, literature, and music. From the very beginning, the new style laid claim to ideological depth and had a great influence on the development of social thought. The Romantics expressed deep disappointment with the results of the Enlightenment reforms and revolutionary changes of the 18th century, but at the same time they were critical of their contemporary society. The romantics contrasted the abstract theories of their predecessors, on the one hand, with the intrinsic value of the individual human personality, and, on the other, with the originality of each nation.
When characterizing a person, they focused on the various shades of his emotional state. They considered the culture of any people, any nationality, to be unique and inimitable.
Romanticism had a profound influence on the development of fiction. At the beginning of the 19th century. The genre of the historical novel is emerging, in which the interest of romantics in the past of various peoples is expressed. One of the founders of this type of literature was the Scottish writer Walter Scott.
The negative attitude of the romantics towards modern reality, their fascination with folk tales and legends was manifested in works written in the spirit of fantastic stories and fairy tales. The unsurpassed master of this genre is the German writer Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann. Romanticism contributed to the extraordinary flowering of lyric poetry, which affirmed a personal, that is, a deliberately one-sided and subjective approach to the perception of the world. In the lyrics of Friedrich Hölderlin, Heinrich Heine, George Byron, Percy Shelley, Alphonse de Lamartine, Victor Hugo and other poets and writers, the subtlest shades of human feelings and thoughts were expressed.
Romanticism contributed to the flourishing of adventure literature. Along with the novels of Alexandre Dumas in the first half of the 19th century. The love of readers was won by the 5-volume epic of the American writer James Fenimore Cooper about the development of new lands in the Wild West by pioneers, as well as the book by the French writer Eugene Sue “Parisian Secrets” about the life of the urban “bottom”. It was under the impression of this novel that Hugo wrote his famous Les Misérables. The stories and tales of the American writer Edgar Allan Poe laid the foundation for detective literature. The traditions of adventure literature were developed in the works of Thomas Main Reid, Robert Stevenson, Jules Verne, Francis Bret Harte and many other European and American writers.
Romanticism received an exceptionally vivid expression in music. It is no coincidence that the romantics placed it on the highest rung of the ladder of art. In Germany and Austria, romanticism contributed to the flourishing of the most lyrical musical genre - song, which combines the art of poetry and music (F. Schubert, R. Schumann, J. Brahms). The first German romantic opera, Ondine, was created by Hoffmann, who was not only a writer, but also a musician and artist. The love of romantics for history and folk legends was reflected in the operas of the German composer Richard Wagner, whose main creation was a cycle of musical dramas under the general title “The Ring of the Nibelung”. In France, the highest expression of romanticism in music was G. Berlioz’s Symphony Fantastique, a kind of “romantic story in symphonic form.”
Romanticism in art openly challenged classicism. Moreover, the confrontation between both styles was not limited to the area of aesthetics. Artistic struggle in the second quarter of the 19th century. became a continuation of political and social conflicts. In a number of countries, romanticism acquired the features of a social movement that opposed conservative governments and sympathized with the revolutionary and liberation struggles. The leader of the romantic movement in French painting was the artist Eugene Delacroix. He loudly declared himself by exhibiting in the Salon, an exhibition periodically organized at the Louvre by the Royal Academy, the painting “The Massacre at Chios,” dedicated to the tragic events of the liberation war of the Greek people against Turkish rule. Subsequently, he painted an allegory painting “Freedom on the Barricades” (other names are “Freedom Leading the People”, “Marseillaise” or “July 28, 1830”), where the artist depicted himself in the image of a student with a gun in his hands.
The famous master of political satire was the French artist Honore Daumier.
5. Stylistic diversity of art
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The noisy struggle between the romantics and the supporters of classicism did not end with the victory, as happened before, of one artistic movement over the other. It led to the final destruction of the stylistic unity of European art, in which in the second half of the 19th century. New artistic movements emerged. This created favorable conditions for the development of the creative individuality of cultural masters. Not bound by the conventions of one style or another, many of them gave free rein to their imagination and embarked on the path of active creative search and experimentation. They were given courage by the fact that in most countries of Europe and America in the second half of the 19th century. Freedoms of speech, press and creative activity were legally enshrined.
Workers of literature and art were also prompted to search for new themes and means of expression by the fact that, compared with past times, the material conditions of creative work have changed significantly. Artists, musicians, and writers began to depend much less on orders and support from the state, church, or wealthy art patrons. But now in their creativity they were increasingly guided by the tastes and demands of ordinary connoisseurs of beauty in the educated and cultural strata of the population. A wide market for works of literature and art emerged.
The growth of the ranks of art lovers explains the fact that it was in the 19th century. A network of public art museums has emerged in many countries. This also led to the flourishing of such mass forms of art as graphics and artistic photography. A revolution in musical culture was carried out by Edison, who in 1877 invented the phonograph. A few years later, a gramophone was created on its basis, and the era of sound recording began. At the end of the century, cinema was born, which soon became one of the most popular forms of art. In 1895, the first public film screenings in history took place in a Parisian café—the French film inventors, brothers Louis Jean and Auguste Lumiere, showed their film “The Arrival of a Train.”
In architecture since the mid-19th century. Eclecticism reigned. In the wake of industrialization and urbanization, mass construction of residential and industrial buildings began in most countries of Europe and America. In an effort to diversify their appearance, architects deliberately began to design the facades and interiors of buildings using a mixture of elements of classicism, baroque, gothic, oriental (Moorish) style and ancient Russian architecture.
The development of literature and fine arts was greatly influenced by scientific achievements. They awakened in writers and artists the desire to reflect reality as accurately as possible, to identify the deep causes and long-term consequences of events occurring in life. Those who set themselves this goal began to be called realists, and their creative method - realism. This method was widely used in literature, where the genre of the novel flourished under its influence. The generally recognized leader of the realistic movement was the French writer Gustave Flaubert. His novel Madame Vovari, published in 1857, was the first to vividly embody the features of a new, “objective manner” of storytelling. Many writers have gone even further. Under the influence of positivism, they tried to bring their creative method as close as possible to science. They formed a “natural school” of literature. One of its most prominent representatives was the French writer Emile Zola. He wrote a series of novels under the general title Rougon-Macquart.
The development of painting in the second half of the 19th century was even more whimsical. In France, a group of young artists, including François Millet, Camille Corot and others, dissatisfied with academicism, turned in their work to landscape, which official art did not recognize as an independent genre of painting. They chose the small village of Barbizon near Paris, where they lived and worked for a long time. They entered the history of art as representatives of the Barbizon school of painting.
The French artist Gustave Courbet chose as the theme of his paintings only what he himself knew thoroughly, while avoiding the temptation to embellish reality. When he was no longer invited to official exhibitions, Courbet, as a sign of protest, exhibited his paintings in a woodshed, to which he gave the symbolic name “Pavilion of Realism.”
One of the most significant events in the history of painting occurred in 1863. A group of French artists, whose works were not accepted for an official exhibition, staged the “Salon of the Rejected.” The leader of the new direction was Claude Monet, whose painting “Impression. The Rising Sun" subsequently gave its name to a new direction in art - impressionism (from the French impression - impression). Its representatives sought not so much to display the world around them, but to show how they perceive it. Camille Pissarro worked exclusively in the landscape genre. Alfred Sisley, an Englishman by birth, also became famous for his subtle, lyrical landscapes. Auguste Renoir was a talented portrait painter. Edgar Degas loved to depict a variety of genre scenes.
Impressionism in painting influenced other forms of art, particularly music. French composer Claude Debussy sought to evoke in his listeners the same sensations that arose in viewers of Impressionist paintings. The outstanding French sculptor Auguste Rodin was close to the representatives of this school. Like the Impressionists, he sought to capture fleeting facial expressions or poses of people in stone.
At the end of the 19th century. The Impressionists, as innovators in art and fighters against academic routine, were replaced by a group of artists united under the name “Post-Impressionists.” They didn't really have a common program. Each of them represented a bright creative individuality and left their own unique mark on art. Henri Toulouse-Lautrec became famous for his graphic works, mainly lithographs, in which he captured vivid, grotesque images of representatives of bohemia and the Parisian “bottom.” Paul Cézanne, unlike the impressionists, did not destroy the material world in his works, but, on the contrary, affirmed it, emphasizing the geometric nature of its forms. The Dutchman Vincent Van Gogh used a special technique of applying paint with sharp, sometimes zigzag, and more often parallel strokes. Paul Gauguin, having left for the island of Tahiti in the Pacific Ocean, came to simplify the forms of his art. His people and objects are flat, his colors are clean and bright, his compositions are ornamental.
* Questions and tasks
1. Define the concepts and give examples of their use in historical science: classicism, baroque, rococo, empire style, romanticism, eclecticism, realism, impressionism, post-impressionism.
2. Historians believe that the Baroque style, which emerged simultaneously in Rome and Spain, was a product of the Counter-Reformation (one of its names indicates this - “Jesuit art”). Give arguments in favor of this point of view or refute it.
3. In what areas of culture did romanticism manifest itself most strongly? Explain why.
4. What artistic style was the Empire style a continuation of? What was its continuity and what was its novelty?
5. What new artistic movements arose in the second half of the 19th century?
Homework: § 21
Russian literature
In the first half of the 19th century. Russian literature entered its “golden age”. She raised the most important social problems. One of the main ones was the problem of strengthening national identity . Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country and tried to find answers to modern questions in it.
The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Marfa the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod” (1803), he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (“Moscow”) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thereby a united and strong Russian state. His scientific work “History of the Russian State” was also imbued with these thoughts.
The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers was manifested in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, and the moral traits of man in previous eras.
The appearance of romanticism in Russian literature is associated with the names of Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker, A. I. Odoevsky.
At the beginning of their creativity, our great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov created romantic works. Their works, unlike the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by optimism in life and an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 30s and 40s. Outstanding examples of literature of this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the poem “The Bronze Horseman”, etc. , as well as Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”.
The founder of the “natural school” (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the striking works of this artistic movement was his story “The Overcoat”, which, along with his other works (“Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”, etc.), marked the beginning of the “Gogol period” of Russian literature (30-40s. ). “We all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat,” ” F. M. Dostoevsky later noted.
Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky showed the new, unfamiliar and realistic world of Russian merchants to the reader and viewer in his first drama “Our People - We Will Be Numbered” (1849), who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he learned rich life material related to the life and customs of the merchants.
In the 40-50s. The central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the fortress village, its customs and morals, and new phenomena of life. A true literary event was the publication of “Notes of a Hunter” (1847-1852) by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian region, but also the serfs, whom he treated with sincere sympathy and warmth.
The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf peasant were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich “Village” and “Anton the Miserable”. As one of his contemporaries wrote, “not a single educated person of that time... could read about Anton’s misfortunes without tears and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom.”
First half of the 19th century became the time of the formation of a modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the ponderous written language of the previous century.
History lesson summary for grade 8 on the topic “19th century mirror of artistic quests”
Life of French society in the first half of the 19th century. fully, comprehensively revealed in the works of the writer, whose bronze monument in the center of Paris amazes with its power. Long years Honore de Balzac (1799 – 1850)like an obsessed person, he worked on the “Human Comedy”, which unites more than a hundred works, trying to capture “the entire social reality”, to understand the essence of modern society, using methods of scientific analysis.
About two thousand characters inhabit the “Human Comedy”, all strata of society are represented in it - from aristocrats and stock exchange tycoons to courtesans and beggars. Among them we will find those who are Robinson's heirs. Clever and ruthless businessmen like Gobseck or Charles Grandet embody the characteristics and philosophy of the bourgeois hoarder. In the struggle for a place in the sun, they got rid of many prejudices, lost their understanding of fair and unfair, their hearts dried up, froze, and shrank. The life position of the new bourgeoisie is that it is better to put pressure on yourself than to allow others to push you.” The naive and decent lawyer Derville, having studied the underbelly of life, exclaims in horror: “Can it really all come down to money!” The world was changing rapidly, dear traditions were disappearing forever, a new spirit was vigorously asserting itself, which had nothing in common either with the ideals of the Enlightenment or with the theories of the romantics. It was sometimes difficult for contemporaries to see and comprehend the scope of the transformations of industrial society. The English writer Charles Dickens (1812–1870)
was horrified by the ugliness that accompanied the creation of advanced industry.
After the resounding success of the novel “The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club,” Dickens would write several works about England: workhouses, slums, and factories where five-year-old children work. Everyone who opens The Adventures of Oliver Twist experiences pain and compassion. “Good old England” is merciless to little Oliver, because he was born in a workhouse, where “masters of death” killed children by starvation, beatings, and hard labor. Here the author does not resort to masking humor; no one is deceived by the happy ending of the work. At the end of the 60s. The star of Emile Zola (1840 – 1902) quickly rose on the literary horizon of Europe. Writer, publicist, politician, he was constantly in the center of attention of French society. Already the first novels made people talk about the young author as the keeper of the traditions of realism and the successor of Balzac. Like Balzac, Zola dreamed of painting a comprehensive panorama of France. However, new times have brought new heroes onto the stage. Bright, integral personalities - Gobsek and Father Goriot - are being replaced by other masters of life: simpler, smaller spiritually, retaining the same wolfish grip, but better adapted to the new era. The writer decided to use the “naturalistic method” as the basis for his depiction of society. A passionate desire to explore French society during the Second Empire prompted the writer to create a grandiose family chronicle - a series of twenty Rougon-Macquart novels, in which the action takes place in various places. Like Balzac in The Human Comedy, Zola shows the lives of representatives of all walks of life. At the center of the story are the children and grandchildren of Adelaide Fuc, a resident of the small provincial town of Plassans (Zola lived in the same town as a boy). From here begins the ascent of some to the heights of wealth and fame and the fall of others to the very bottom. Conclusion:
The new great works fully reflected the spirit of the time and its realities, the names of the writers became world famous and to this day form an integral part of the treasury of world literature.
Theater
In the Russian theater, the change in artistic directions occurred as quickly as in literature.
At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. On the stage of Russian theaters, classicism with its inherent ancient and mythological subjects and external pomp dominated.
In the 20-30s. In the theater, the romantic school is increasingly asserting itself, with its characteristic emphasis of actors on the inner experiences of the heroes and the heroic-tragic themes of the plays. The largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller’s drama “Cunning and Love”). His heroes were distinguished by their selfless struggle for freedom and justice, and his acting was characterized by intense emotionality.
Since the 40s A new page begins in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to propose subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin at the Maly Theater became the largest social event in the life of Moscow.
Another remarkable actor of the school of stage realism was Alexander Evstafievich Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He conveyed with excellent skill the experiences and everyday life of the “little man” of his time.
An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Small Theater in its official character.
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so UNT / Russian literature / Lesson plans for Russian literature 8th grade
Lesson 1 INTRODUCTORY LESSON: THE ART OF READING
03.03.2012 18713 2586
Lesson 1 Introductory Lesson: The Art of Reading
(2 hours)
Lesson objectives:
prepare students to accept the new course, create an active working mood, and interest them in further classes;
make you think about how to read works of fiction in order to discover in each of them a large and beautiful world created by the writer; work on mastering antonymic vocabulary with the meaning of reading differentiation (reading to oneself and for oneself - reading aloud, for others; reading-empathy - evaluative, interpretive reading)
; teach detailed statements using comparative structures and emotional vocabulary with the meaning of self-esteem.
During the classes
I. Organizational moment.
II. Communicate the topic and objectives of the lesson.
III. Studying a new topic.
1. Introductory speech by the teacher.
Do you know how many books there are in the world? Probably more than islands and underwater reefs in the oceans. But not even the bravest captain will lead his ship on a voyage if he does not know about all the islands, shoals and reefs on his way. Imagine a large port: some ships are mooring, others are sailing, others are loading or unloading, and between them port tugs, boats and boats are scurrying around. And so, so that the captain can guide his ship to the pier in this chaos of large and small ships, he is sent from the port a pilot, a person who knows the location of the berths, the peculiarities of the work of this port, and the ship traffic schedule. Even an experienced captain needs a pilot in an unfamiliar port.
I hope you understand why I compare books to islands in the ocean? Yes Yes! It is not easy for even a highly educated person to understand the vast sea of books. It is no coincidence that since ancient times there have been many professions that help people navigate the ocean of human wisdom. These are literary scholars, and bibliographers, who collect and systematize information about books, and librarians, who store and lend books, and bibliophiles, book lovers and collectors.
And, if you don’t mind, I will become your pilot and help you learn to read and choose books; I will try to expand your knowledge. Every book contains some secret. But there are no secrets in the world that an inquisitive mind could not reveal. It is only important to approach the matter correctly.
You have already become acquainted with the magic of words. I dare to think that you are now not just students, but masters, so our lessons will now become lessons of mastery. After all, not only in order to write, but also in order to read a book, revealing its secrets, one must be a master.
– What will they be like, our literature lessons? What does it mean to “study literature”? ... I’ll clarify your idea: studying literature means learning to read the pages that came from a writer’s pen, learning to read a special work of art.
– But can we read? Tell us how this happens for each of you and whether it is the same...
Compare your reading at home (most likely, probably silently) and in class. What is the meaning of both readings?
Let's listen to the guys who decided to read their favorite work.
2. Reading 2–3 works (or fragments from them) by prepared students.
– What is the “art of reading”? are we getting closer to it?
3. Experience of “reader biography”.
As we grow up, we enrich our reading biography. This is how M. Gorky talked about it in his autobiographical story “In People.” (Reading a fragment.)
And here is another experience of such a confession: V. G. Korolenko - “The Story of My Acquaintance with Dickens.” (Reading a fragment.)
– What is your opinion about Korolenko’s pages?
– Now try to outline your reading biography.
Creative work “My growing up as a reader” using comparative constructions and emotional vocabulary with the meaning of self-esteem (phrases are written on the board): I have become older, more thoughtful, more demanding, more subtle in the perception of the writer’s word...; If I used to like to read..., now I’m closer to...; my first writer...; my first meeting with... and then...
Homework:
finish a creative work about your growing up as a reader.
See the downloadable file for the full text of the material.
The page contains only a fragment of the material.
