History project 6th grade "In the knight's castle"

Significance of research activities

Any creative history project involves applying standard knowledge to new conditions. The younger generation not only learns to use a variety of historical sources, but also develops the skills of conducting scientific discussion.

The topics of history projects can be general, relating to certain stages of human development, or they can also have a narrow focus - on the study of individual events, periods, people. Regardless of the type of activity, any research work requires serious and lengthy preparation and systematization of the material.

Work structure

Topics for history projects can be proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the students themselves. Despite the fact that the content of the work differs significantly, there are certain general rules that must be taken into account.

It is necessary to begin your scientific activity by thinking through an algorithm of actions, choosing a topic and purpose of research. At this stage, the help of a teacher is allowed; the success of all subsequent work of the child directly depends on him.

First example

For example, if a student is interested in toy history, it is important to choose a specific object to study. It is impossible in one work to mention all their types, to collect information about their appearance and use. Toy Story can be limited in its work to one city, family, or time period. This gives the material greater importance and significance, increasing its uniqueness.

Topics of research work in history related to toys are aimed at developing in the younger generation a sense of patriotism, pride in their city, family, and country.

Among the methods that will be required to carry out such work, we note: conducting a sociological survey, reviewing literary sources, and processing the results obtained. Special attention must be paid to the design of the work.

Features of work

The topics of history projects can be related to folk traditions, national rituals, and family photographs.

Such works make it possible to connect several generations at once with a single thread, and to develop in growing Russians a sense of pride in their country. Children learn to independently plan their activities, make decisions, and establish contacts with other participants in the educational process.

The topics of history projects that junior schoolchildren choose mainly relate to a specific family or city. High school students have a wealth of knowledge, so their work has a more global scale.

Student projects in history

Bast

Choir

The Egyptians worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses. The religion of the Egyptians developed over the centuries: some deities disappeared, others grew from local to the rank of general Egyptian main gods, who were worshiped everywhere. Several gods could merge into one and be worshiped as one (Amon-Ra). The responsibilities of different deities could overlap, and then a sphere of life or a field of knowledge (for example, medicine) would have several patrons at once. Many gods and goddesses were associated with animals, and were often depicted in the form of that beast, or with the head of an animal and the body of a man.

Isis

- wife and sister of Osiris, mother of Horus, personification of marital fidelity and motherhood; goddess of fertility, water and wind, magic, navigation, guardian of the dead. She was depicted as a woman with the head or horns of a cow.

Amon

- the main god of the city of Thebes, with the rise of which he became the supreme deity, the patron of royal power and military campaigns.
He was also identified with the sun god Ra, after which he received the name Amon-Ra. He was depicted wearing a high crown of two feathers, sometimes with the head of a ram. Cult:
Thebes
Animals:
goose, ram, snake

Anubis (Inpu)

- patron god of the dead, as well as necropolises, funeral rites and embalming. During life, he was called upon to lead souls through the darkness of ignorance, and after death he was the guide of the soul to the heavenly Duat. He was depicted as a jackal or a man with the head of a jackal. Helped Isis collect the body parts of Osiris after Set scattered them throughout Egypt.

Maat

- the pan-Egyptian goddess of truth and justice - personified world harmony and the supreme order supported by the pharaoh.
Symbol:
feather

Bastet

- goddess of love and fun, as well as motherhood.
The daughter of the sun god Ra, she healed diseases and grew grains. Cult:
Bubastis
Animal:
cat

Aker

- An ancient deity of the earth and the underworld, guardian of the rising and setting of the sun. He was revered in the form of two lions facing east and west, between whose backs the solar disk was placed.

Ammat is a female demon with the body of a hippopotamus, the paws of a lion and the mouth of a crocodile. She was known as the devourer of the hearts of sinners after the trial in the afterlife.

Geb

- god of the earth, son of Shu and Tefnut, husband of Nut and father of Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys. In the pyramid texts he is also credited with protecting the dead. He was depicted as an old man with a beard and royal jewelry or stretched out at full length, with Nut leaning on him

Mert

- goddess of music and singing, patroness of the performance of solemn hymns to the gods. She was depicted as a woman beating time with her palms, with a gold sign on her head. Her sanctuary was called the “golden house.” She was revered mainly by the common people - the nobility preferred the goddess Isis to her

Nekhbet

- the guardian goddess of the royal family, the image of Nekhbet goes back to the most ancient ideas about the sky as the wings of a kite. Symbolized the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt into a single state. Depicted as a woman wearing a crown. Egypt with a kite crest on its head.

Nehebkau

- God in the form of a snake. He was revered as the god of time, fertility and food giver. Associated with the afterlife cult, Nehebkau was believed to stand at the entrance to the underworld. Usually in sources he appears as an assistant to Ra.

Chickpeas

- goddess of the sky. The children of Nut are the stars whose movement she controls, and the sun is Ra. The chickpea swallows them every day, and then gives birth again (this is how the change of day and night occurs). An image of Nut, as if looking at a mummy, was often placed on the inside of the sarcophagus lid.

Osiris

- god of rebirth, king of the underworld in ancient Egyptian mythology.

- the supreme deity of the ancient Egyptians. His name means "sun", of which Ra was the god. The center of the cult was Heliopolis, where Ra was identified with the more ancient local solar deity, Atum. Ra was also compared with the local deities of light: Amon (in Thebes), under the name Amon-Ra, Khnum (in Elephantine) - in the form of Khnum-Ra, Horus - in the form of Ra-Horakte.

Set

- the god of “foreign countries” (desert), the personification of the evil principle, the killer of Osiris. The sacred animals of Seth were the pig, antelope, okapi (giraffe), etc., the main one was the donkey. Set in plastic and drawings was depicted as a man with a thin long body and the head of a donkey.

Seshat

- goddess of writing. She was depicted as a woman in a panther skin, draped over a shirt, with a seven-pointed star on her head. Seshat is the head of the “house of life”, i.e. a collection of manuscripts, an archive; on the leaves of the “shed” tree (her fetish) she records the years of the life and reign of the pharaoh, is in charge of the art of counting (mainly counting war trophies, prisoners), drawing up construction documents plans

Sobek

- god of water and the flood of the Nile. His sacred animal is the crocodile. He was depicted as a man, a crocodile, or a man with the head of a crocodile. In a number of texts, S. is considered as a protector of gods and people, but he often acts as a god hostile to Ra and Osiris.

That

- god of wisdom and the moon. Constant companion and advisor to the supreme god Ra, creator of writing and the calendar. He was depicted as a man with the head of an ibis, often with papyrus and a writing instrument. Sacred animals are the ibis and the baboon.

Khnum is the god of fertility. Xnum was revered throughout Egypt. In ancient times it was depicted as a ram with rounded horizontal horns, then as a man with the head of a ram. Xnum helped during childbirth, he created a man from clay on a potter’s wheel, his spiritual double - ka, had power over human destiny.

Khonsou

- lunar deity, god-lord of time, patron of medicine, close to Thoth. He was depicted as a young man with the moon on his head or a boy with a “lock of youth” - a symbol of minority.

Sixth

- the god who patronizes winemaking and the production of oils for rubbing and embalming. Associated with the afterlife cult: he protected the mummy from damage, punished sinners by order of Osiris. Its attribute is a wine press.

Choir

- god of the sun, god of royalty, patron of the power of the pharaoh, who was considered the earthly incarnation of Horus. Depicted as a falcon or a man with the head of a falcon.

Material for work

We offer you topics for research papers on history. Perhaps they will be of interest to the younger generation of enthusiastic, caring Russian schoolchildren.

Macedonian in the Hellenistic era.
What do we know about Alfred Nobel?
Fortresses and castles of England.
Past and present of the English alphabet.
Socio-economic development of Greece.
Atlantis is a civilization worth learning more about!
Attica during the collapse of slave-owning democracy in the works of Aristophanes.
History and significance of balloons and airships in Russia before 1918.
Uniqueness of China.
The history of the creation of the Slavic alphabet.
Military equipment in Rus' during the X–XVI centuries. and the specifics of its creation.
Martial arts in the period of Ancient Rus'.
Boris Godunov: life and significance for the country.
What is the Time of Troubles?
Life of peasants in the Middle Ages.
The fate of the family in the history of the country.
Battle of Thermopylae
Bogatyrs in the past and present.
The Battle of Borodino through the eyes of the French.
Gods of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece.

This project is designed to make your lessons visual and interesting.

If you value your personal time, want to diversify lessons that have become routine, and interest students in your subject, your choice is Our project.

Now you can afford to pay more attention to pressing matters: family, friends, relaxation. There will no longer be a need to constantly search for the necessary or additional material for each lesson, compile notes and test assignments.

Every teacher

history and
every student
will find new, interesting and useful information in this project.

The project is " ready to use"

» and does not require additional actions from you.

Project lessons are not just spoken text

textbook.
This is a unique educational complex
that
makes your work easier
and makes history accessible and understandable to every student.

The material of each lesson is presented sequentially

and
logical
.
Each phenomenon, process or definition has a concise
and
accessible explanation
.
The characteristics
and
results
are given .
The lessons contain everything you need
.

Historical maps and diagrams

Visual description of works of art

, cultural objects,
life
and
appearance of representatives
of that era.

Reconstructed battles

The lessons combine educational

and
entertainment
function, therefore, everything that happens on the screen
is dynamic
.
Before you is truly a living story
.

Tests

, attached to the lessons, were created in a special program

MyTest X. You can use them to check your homework or to check your knowledge.

With their help, you can test the knowledge of all students in the class in 5 minutes.

Moreover, each test is accompanied by its text version.

. Therefore, to work with tests it is not necessary to have a computer in the office.

You can simply print out and distribute text versions of the tests and conduct a knowledge test on personal notes.

Examples of research papers related to Russia

For example, the history of the creation of the Slavic alphabet can become the basis of several works at once:

Life of the Slavs.
Culture and religion.
Beliefs of the Slavs.
The magical world of ancient Russian myths and legends.
Slavs and Vikings: features of relations.
Slavic weapons.
The appearance of the first writing.

Fans of the 17th-20th centuries may well start studying interesting facts related to these historical milestones:

Great personalities in Russian history.
Virtual trip around the USSR.
The influence of time on the popularity of the historical figure I.V. Stalin.
The influence of historical processes on the formation of Soviet power.
The influence of epidemics on events that took place in Russia.
The emergence of Russian humanism.
War of 1812.
Elected power as a factor in increasing the standard of living of Russian citizens.
History of names and surnames.
Heraldry: an inflorescence of history, knowledge and art.
Cities of Russia in legends and traditions.
Public holidays as a reflection of the characteristics of the political regime in our country.
Welcome to Moscow!
History of chess.
Friendship since ancient times.
Women in the history of our country.
Lenin's life path.
Forgotten Pomeranian Russian games.
The Life of Queen Catherine II.
How the Moscow region and Moscow appeared.
Conquest of Siberia.
Ivan IV the Terrible is the first Tsar of Rus'.
Ivan the Terrible: a portrait of a personality based on the era.
Ivan Susanin is a true patriot of the Russian land.
The importance of accepting Christianity in Rus'.
Iconography in Rus'.
The history of the creation of the Moscow Kremlin.
How coins appeared in Rus'.
Russian pancakes – interesting facts.
The history of Russian pancakes.
Sailing fleet in Rus'.

Creative research project for history, 6th grade. Topic: Ancient city

Creative research project on the history of ancient Rus' “Ancient City”

Authors: 6th grade students Anton Voronin, Yulia Voronina, Oleg Lebedev, Milena Tikhomirova Scientific supervisor: history teacher Olga Vladimirovna Korableva Contents Introduction .
Goals and objectives. Chapter 1. The emergence of cities. 1.1. Where does the name "city" come from? 1.2. When did the first cities appear? 1.3. Theories of the origin of cities 1.4. Functions of cities. Chapter 2. Structure and characteristics of settlements in ancient times. 2.1.Structure of the Russian city. 2.2.Protective fortifications in the city. Chapter 3. Inside the city. 3.1. Streets. 3.2. Pavements. 3.3. Dwellings. Conclusion. List of sources used. Application\photo. Introduction

“In old cities, every piece of stone breathes life...” Taguhi Semirdzhyan Western neighbors called Ancient Rus' a country of cities.
In the Scandinavian sagas of the 9th century. it speaks of “a country of many cities - Gardarik”, this is the ancient Scandinavian name of the Old Russian state, known to the Vikings in the Middle Ages. Until now, these ancient cities are witnesses of glory, grandeur, spiritual strength and wealth. Indeed, there were many cities in Rus'. From written sources dating from the 9th-10th centuries, 24 large settlements are known, but it can be assumed that there were many more. The names of these settlements, as a rule, were Slavic. For example, Novgorod, Vyshgorod, Beloozero, Przemysl. The emergence of cities in Ancient Rus' was rapid. “By the end of the 12th century. there were already about 230 of them, but, without a doubt, this number is far from corresponding to their actual number, if by city we mean what was meant in ancient times, that is, any fortified or fenced settlement.” They were well fortified and were centers of politics, trade, education and culture. The urban population in ancient Russia constituted the main basis of state life and decisively prevailed over the rural population. Novgorod became the northern capital of Rus', which arose on the Volkhov River, next to Lake Ilmen, presumably in 862. This city was the main trading center of the northern part of Rus', from here the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” began. The mother of Russian cities was another great city of southern Rus' - Kyiv, founded in the middle of the 9th century. “The Russian land came from here,” as the ancient chronicler Nestor claims. Both cities have survived to this day. Now there are a much larger number of cities than in Ancient Rus'. According to the results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census, 1,100 settlements have city status. According to the set of rules “Urban planning. Planning and development of urban and rural settlements" from the Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation, the country's cities are classified as follows: 1) Cities with a population of more than a million people (largest cities) 2) Cities with a population of 500 thousand - 1 million people (large cities) 3) Cities with a population of 250-500 thousand people (large cities) 4) Cities with a population of 100-250 thousand people (large cities) 5) Cities with a population of 50-100 thousand people (medium cities) 6) Cities with a population of less than 50 thousand .people (small towns) We were interested in this topic, and many questions arose: What was the ancient city like? How and when did the ancient city arise? How did the ancient city differ from the modern one? We decided to explore this issue in more depth, relying on historical research and sources. Moreover, the process of urbanization and consolidation of cities in the modern world is very active. This is a current feature of our modern post-industrial society. The rural population is declining, while the urban population is growing. There is a massive outflow to large cities, to megalopolises “for a better life.” We dedicate this work to the study of the city. In addition, we ourselves are rural residents and would like to know more about the city - about the history of its origin, its characteristics, differences from the village. The Kremlin is the central part of the city

Purpose: the purpose of this work is to study the ancient city of Russia, as well as some features of its structure. Objectives: - study materials on toponymy, the meaning of the word “city” - establish the time of the emergence of the first cities - study theories of the origin of the city - study the functions of the city - learn about the features of the structure of ancient cities (about the internal structure of the city, streets, dwellings) - learn research skills , improve skills and abilities for independent acquisition of knowledge.
Research methods: 1. Descriptive method 2. Historical-comparative (analogy) 3. Historical-typological method Chapter 1. The emergence of cities
1. Where does the name “city” come from? The word “city” has been widely known in the Old Russian language since the 11th century. The toponym is based on the root gard (related to the Indo-European gard), which means 1) “fence, fence, fortification”, 2) “yard, enclosed space”, 3) “yard, possession, farm (in Iceland), house (in Norway)". Most often, scientists use the term “city” in the sense of “fortress, fortified settlement.” The relationship between the Scandinavian “gard” and the Old Russian “city, city” played an important role in the formation of the toponym Gardariki. In the Russian language dictionary, “city” is a full-voiced formation from the Old Slavonic grad. We found the following meanings of the word “City” (Common Slavic - gordъ, Old Slavic - grad, Old Russian - city): originally the word “city” meant “fence”, “fence”, “fenced place”, because the ancient Slavs tried in different ways to protect their settlements, protect from enemies, wild animals, etc. As a result, large settlements with houses surrounded by a fortress wall began to be called cities. 2. When did the first cities appear? The question immediately arises: when did the first cities arise? Which cities are the most ancient? We found information that the first cities arose quite a long time ago, as indicated by ancient chronicles. Thus, the Tale of Bygone Years already contains direct indications of the existence of cities among the Slavs - Olga’s words addressed to the besieged residents of Korosten: “What do you want to sit through; all your cities have already been handed over to me and have pledged to pay tribute and are cultivating their fields and their land; and you would rather starve yourself than pay tribute.” This means that by the beginning of the reign of Princess Olga (945), the Slavs already had several cities. Further, we found an even earlier dating for the emergence of the city of Ladoga. By the 8th century. can be attributed to his education. “The first mention of the settlement of Ladoga in the oldest Russian chronicle dates back to 862. However, the settlement itself arose long before this event - in the 8th, and perhaps even in the 7th century. The earliest date historians have received is 753, which is conventionally accepted as the year of Ladoga’s founding.” The situation is more complicated with the exact dating of the founding of Kyiv. The exact date of the founding of the city has not been established. The first Slavic settlement, according to some assumptions, existed on the territory of the modern city back in the 6th century. In 882, Kyiv became the capital of Kievan Rus and reached its peak in the 10th-12th centuries. In the book of the historian M. Stryikovsky, which briefly summarizes the history of some principalities, it is stated that the city of Kyiv was founded by Prince Kiy in 430. The results of archaeological excavations indicate that already in the 6th-7th centuries there were settlements on the right bank of the Dnieper, which some researchers interpret as urban. Thus, it is quite difficult to establish the exact time of the formation of the first cities; different sources date this process differently. But one fact is known for sure: cities arose among the Slavs long before the “calling of the Rurikovichs,” long before the formation of the ancient Russian state. The eighth, and possibly the seventh century is the approximate time of the emergence of the first cities. 3. Theories of the origin of cities What is the reason for the emergence of a city? Slavic tribes lived happily in tribal communities for many centuries. Why did people need him? Historians do not have a consensus on this matter. The reasons for the emergence of ancient Russian cities are varied. We have explored a number of theories about the origins of the city. 1 theory: In the works of V.V. Mavrodin, devoted to the problem of the emergence of ancient Russian cities and their early history, the following concept is formulated: cities arise on the basis of tribal centers and as a result of the decomposition of the clan system. AND I. Froyanov, Shtykhov G.V. It is also believed that cities arose as tribal centers during the period of transition from the tribal system to feudalism: “an ancient Russian city is a complex, diverse social organism, which is the center of craft and trade, a fortress, and the administrative center of the principality. The emergence of cities is one of the signs of the formation of statehood.” 2nd theory: The theory of some modern historians who studied Ancient Rus' is interesting in this direction. They came to the conclusion that there was another way of urban formation: the transfer of cities. Modern archaeologists believe that in Rus' in the late 10th - early 11th centuries. Numerous cases of city transfers have been observed. Thus, archaeologist V.I. Dubov Using materials from the Volga-Oka interfluve, he tried to determine the ways in which the city emerged. “Here, in North-Eastern Rus', one of the ways of the emergence of the ancient Russian city was fully manifested - the so-called “transfer” of cities - everywhere and this is especially characteristic of the north-east. We record these phenomena in Beloozero, Timirev is being replaced by Yaroslavl, Sarsky settlement is being replaced by Rostov...” 3 theory: Scientists such as Klyuchevsky O.V., Kizilov Yu.A., noted the favorable geographical location, including waterways, the development of crafts and trade. It was on large waterways that richer and larger cities grew - Novgorod, Smolensk, Kyiv, Chernigov, which became the centers of the principalities. A. Kirpichnikov in the article “The Great Volga Road” wrote: “The presence of the Volga and the rivers of its system contributed to the settlement and agricultural development of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus' by the Slavs. This process took place with particular intensity in the Volga-Oka interfluve. It is no coincidence that large cities arose here - Murom, Suzdal, Rostov, and later Vladimir... As for the Eastern European settlements of the 9th-10th centuries, we should name Ladoga in the lower reaches of the Volkhov, the predecessor of Novgorod - the Rurik settlement at the source of the river. Further down the Volga are the Mikhailovskoye and Timerovo complexes, which gave rise to Yaroslavl. Other early centers are also connected with the Volga: Sarskoye fortification - the predecessor of Rostov, Kleshchin - the predecessor of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Let us further note Murom on the Oka.” Thus, the key factors in the formation of cities are the collapse of the tribal system of the Slavs, the transfer of large Slavic settlements to cities, the peculiarities of the geographical location, and the proximity of rivers. 4. Functions of the city When exploring the issue of cities, one cannot help but touch upon the question of its purpose, its role in people’s lives.
There are several main functions of cities, on which the type of city depended. “...We can talk about functional differences between ancient Russian cities, which had different leading functions. Among them were: agricultural production, crafts and trade, management, military-strategic position, cultural and ideological significance, etc...." The Tale of Bygone Years tells about another type of city. “In the year 6545, Yaroslav founded a large city, which now has the Golden Gate, founded the Church of St. Sophia, the metropolis, and then the Church of the Holy Mother of God of the Annunciation on the Golden Gate, then the monastery of St. George and St. Irene. Under him, the Christian faith began to multiply and spread, and the monks began to multiply, and monasteries to appear...” Thus, in Ancient Rus', many cities also existed as religious ones. craft and trade, military, administrative, religious and cultural. We believe that the military-strategic function was still primary. At the first military alarm, the population took refuge in their towns, ready to withstand the siege and repel the enemy. In accordance with the needs of protection, the place for the city was usually chosen somewhere on the coastal elevation of the river; at least on one side it was adjacent to wilds and swamps, which not only prevented an enemy attack from this side, but also served as shelter in case the town was captured. Before the unification of Rus' under one princely family, when each tribe lived separately and was divided into many communities, not only external enemies, but also frequent mutual quarrels forced the population to protect themselves from enemy attack. Chapter 2. Structure and characteristics of settlements in ancient times
1. Structure of the city. In Russian cities, there was a division, quite common for the Middle Ages, into an internal fortress (Detinets - Kremlin) and the surrounding suburb. On a hill, as a rule, separated from the river, a fortified part was built - a detinets. Detinets was considered an internal part, although it rarely went inside, and usually on one or two sides was located above the very coastal slope. It housed the cathedral church and the prince's courtyard, as well as the courtyards of some boyars and clergy. Part of the younger squad also stayed here - the children's squad, who made up the city defense (from them the name "detinets"). Ostrog was the name given to the outer, or roundabout, town adjacent to Detinets. It was surrounded by a rampart, walls and towers, and on the outside by a ditch filled with water; such a fortress ditch was usually called rowing. Subsequently, the roundabout town became better known as “posada”; it was predominantly inhabited by a trading population and various types of artisans. Its necessary accessory was a “trading place”, or “torzhok”, where on certain days people from surrounding villages came to exchange their works. Residential buildings were located closer to the river, in the lowlands or, as they said, on the hem. Thus, the first cities of Ancient Rus' consisted of a central part - the detinets, well protected, and a more convenient, but less safe trade and craft part - the posada, or foothills. Ancient cities in Ancient Rus' were not built of stone, like most settlements in Western Europe at that time, but of wood. This is where the verb “cut down” a city, rather than build, came from. “Cities arose in different ways. But they all had: fortifications - walls with towers, a rampart and a ditch; extensive trade and craft settlements - posad; market square - bargaining. These three components made up the city and its specific structure. The fortified center of the city was called in Novgorod - detinets, in Pskov - krom, in Moscow - kremlin, but everywhere it served as the residence of the prince.” M.N. Tikhomirov describes the structure of the city in more detail. “The territory of Russian cities of the 9th-10th centuries was mainly contained within the confines of small fortresses - Detinets. Next to the “detinets” grew settlements of artisans and merchants who settled outside the castle walls; two urban worlds were created: princely and free (trade and craft).” So, gradually, the child grew into a suburb. The most striking example of such a neighborhood of two different worlds is given by Kyiv. “In the chronicles there are two parts of Kyiv - Gora and Podol. The emergence of Podol was closely connected with the development of crafts and Kyiv trade. Cities created their own special world, trade and crafts developed. This study is also confirmed by archaeological excavations of other cities.” Ancient Kyiv

2. Defensive fortifications in the city A city in Ancient Russia was a settlement for which the location was carefully chosen. The only way to get inside was through the gate. Gates and weak sections of walls were strengthened with wooden towers, but until the 13th century they were quite rare. The territory should be convenient in terms of defense. The Slavs lived in settlements surrounded by strong log walls and deep, wide ditches. Such fenced villages were reliable refuges from attacks by enemies and wild animals that lived in abundance in the forests. The fortifications formed a protective ring of wooden logs - fences filled with earth. The fence had three types: 1) Tyn - a solid wooden fence made of dug-in posts - a palisade. This is the most ancient way to strengthen a wall. 2) Gorodnya - separate log houses, placed close to each other, covered inside with earth and stones. 3) Tarasa(s) - a system of wooden frame walls, in which two parallel walls were connected after a certain interval by transverse walls (cuts) cut into them, and the resulting ones were thus the cells were filled with earth and stones. Slavic palisade

Thus, each city had the following structure: Detinets, Okolny Grad and Posad. An important role in any city was played by defensive fortifications - a ditch, a rampart, a protective ring of fortifications, fences.

Chapter 3. Inside the city
1. Streets. Now let's look at what the streets and houses were like. The Russian medieval city was not cramped: in Rus', with its vast territories, people always built freely and spaciously. As mentioned above, plantings were of great importance. Tikhomirov M.N. believes that the words “street” and “end” were used to designate urban areas in Ancient Rus'. The streets were passages between fences containing gates. All buildings were located behind the fence. “The names of the streets were varied, but still obeyed a certain pattern, which was most easily observed in the example of Veliky Novgorod... Among the names of Novgorod streets, first of all, a group of streets stands out that received their nicknames from personal names: Danslavl, Dobrynin, Yanev, Ivorov . There were street names associated with craft activities: Shchitnaya, Kholopya, Kuznechnaya, Konyukhova, etc. Other street names, for example, “Varyazhskaya, Chudintseva, Prusskaya, apparently were given to the streets according to their predominant population.”

2. Pavements In spring, autumn, and rainy summer, some city streets turned into impassable swamps. But not all. Streets already in the 10th century. had wooden pavements. Archaeologists who studied this problem discovered wooden pavements at the site of street excavations, as well as various drainage and drainage systems. “The streets were paved with wooden blocks 4-5 m long, under which there were often drainage pipes made of huge logs, ~60 cm in diameter and 20-30 m long. In many ancient Russian and Western Slavic cities, engineering improvement reached a very high level. Lanes, entrances to estates and courtyard areas, free from buildings, were also paved. The city authorities took care of the serviceability of the street pavements, repaired them, and if there was significant wear and tear, they built new ones.”

Novgorodians walked along neat wooden pavements. The city had the famous “Charter on Bridges” of the 9th century. This “Charter” shows that already in those distant times there was a special bridge duty. Street paving was mandatory and was carefully monitored. Excavations made it possible to discover ancient pavements, confirming the conclusion about the widespread distribution of street paving throughout the chronicle history of Veliky Novgorod. The pavements reached an average width of 3-4 meters, and sometimes 6 m, as, for example, on Velikaya Street. They were made of wide blocks supported on long thin logs - logs.” Over time, when the old pavement sagged, a new one was laid on top of it. Thus, a whole “pie” was formed from the pavements - as many as 28 layers.

In Article 97 “On Bridge Builders” of “Russkaya Pravda”, the lengthy edition says: “But the taxes to the bridge builder: when building a bridge, collect him a nakedness for every 10 cubits of the bridge; if he repairs the old bridge, then take him a kuna for each span, no matter how many spans he repairs; and the bridge builder (should) ride with the youth on two horses; (to whom to give) 4 ounces of oats a week, and to feed (him) to his full.” Thus, an analysis of archaeological and chronicle sources indicates that engineering devices in Rus' were used very widely, starting from the 10th century. In addition to widespread pavements, cities in Rus' were equipped with drainage structures and wells. 3. Other features of the city Russian cities were predominantly wooden cities. And this is how they differed from Western European cities. The walls and towers of the city were wooden; only in a few cities were there stone ones. It is clear that with an abundance of forests and a lack of mountains and stone, fortifications in Eastern Europe were of a different nature than in Western Europe. In Rus', with its richest reserves, forests were built mainly from wood: walls and towers of fortresses, temples, dwellings, baths, barns, bridges, fences, streets and squares were paved with wood. Any Russian medieval city can rightfully be called wooden. Only a few temples and chambers were made of stone. This resulted in the fragility of urban buildings and the difficulty of studying them through archaeological excavations. According to M.N. Tikhomirov, “the love of Russian people for wooden dwellings cannot be explained by the poverty of the townspeople. It, first of all, depended on the undeniably greater convenience of a wooden building compared to a stone one in a cold climate, long and damp autumn and spring. In Ancient Rus', warm and dry housing was needed, which forced them to stick to less durable and imposing, but more comfortable, wooden houses.” “Ancient, wooden Rus'”

Housing was socially differentiated - the housing of the rich and the housing of the poor. In Rus', one-story buildings predominated and only the boyar and merchant chambers were taller. The usual type of urban mass housing was a one-room house, usually a half-dugout frame house with clay filling of the walls in the south and a log house in the north. Houses with 2-3 rooms are also known.

The house had a plank roof and adobe or wooden floor. The clay hearth was usually located at the back wall opposite the entrance, the smoke was discharged through a hole above the entrance, there were no chimneys, the houses were heated “black” (smoking huts). Utility pits were installed in the floor of the dwelling. The meager illumination came through fiberglass windows - small holes cut into two adjacent logs of the wall and closed with a special gate valve. The doors of the houses were about 1 meter high. Many houses had various wooden carved decorations (archaeologists discovered flaps, carved pillars in Novgorod, platband in Polotsk, etc.). Also, the Slavs, being pagans, considered the roof and windows vulnerable to evil spirits, so they were actively decorated with “amulets” - wood carvings with magical symbols. Thus, the horse was considered a symbol of the well-being of the home.

Conclusion.

The word “city” originally meant “fence”, “enclosure”, “fenced place”.
Later, large settlements with houses enclosed by a fortress wall began to be called cities. VIII, possibly 7th century - the approximate time of the emergence of the first cities. The key factors in the formation of cities are the collapse of the tribal system of the Slavs, the transfer of large Slavic settlements to cities, the peculiarities of the geographical location, and the proximity of rivers. The city was a combination of various functions: craft and trade, administrative, religious, cultural, the primary one was the military-strategic function. In terms of its structure, an ancient Russian city is a complex structure, usually located on a steep bank of a river. On the vulnerable side, the city was carefully fortified with ring ditches and ramparts, and fences. In the center of the city there was a fortified Detynets Kremlin, where the residence of the prince was most often located. Detinets was surrounded by a trade and craft settlement, which was an integral part of ancient Russian cities. Posads were divided into streets and ends, with estate and street buildings. The streets had names depending on the professions, names, categories of the population living on it. In many cities, engineering improvement has reached a very high level. This can be seen in the example of one of the most ancient engineering structures - bridges. There was a separate specialty - bridge builder. Cities were improved with drainage structures and wells. Feature: the Russian city was made of wood. In Ancient Rus', warm and dry housing was needed, and there was enough wood. Housing was socially differentiated - the housing of the rich and the housing of the poor. The dwellings of princes and boyars are mansions of 6-8 rooms. A typical dwelling of ordinary people is a semi-dugout or a wooden frame. Many houses had various wooden carved decorations - flaps, carved pillars, platbands. As it turned out, the ancient city was not so different from the modern one! Monuments of ancient Russian architecture indicate the high development of construction in the state. Over the years, builders developed their own style, different from other countries, which made the cities of Rus' unique in their architectural design. Now these cities are living witnesses to the greatness and glory of our country, our great history! List of sources used Internet resources: References: 1. Dubov I.V.
Cities shining with majesty. - L., 1985; 2. Kuza A.V. Small towns of Ancient Rus'. - M., 1989; 3. Mavrodin V.V. The formation of the Old Russian state and the formation of the Old Russian nationality. - M., 1971; 4. Nosov E.N. The problem of the origin of the first cities of Northern Rus' Antiquities of the North-West. St. Petersburg, 1993; 5. Ryabtsev Yu.S. Journey to ancient Rus'. - M., 1995; 6. Tikhomirov M.N. Old Russian cities. - M., 1956; 7. The Tale of Bygone Years. Russian Historical Library, 2017\ Translation by D. S. Likhachev; 8. Old Ladoga. The ancient capital of Rus'. – St. Petersburg, 2003; 9. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. M.: Russian language from A to Z. Publishing house <UNWES> M., 2003. Appendices
Appendix 1. Old Russian state ser. IX-X centuries

Appendix 2. Cities of Ancient Rus'. According to the chronicles, the existence was established in the 9th-10th centuries. more than 20 Russian cities. Novgorod - 859 (according to later chronicles), 862 (according to early ones) Kyiv - 852 or between the 1st century. and VI century. AD Izborsk - 862 Polotsk - 862 Rostov - 862 Murom - 862 Ladoga - 862, according to dendrochronology, before 753 Beloozero - 862, according to the chronicle it belongs to ancient times Smolensk - 863, mentioned among the oldest Russian cities Lyubech - 881 Pereyaslavl (Pereyaslavl Russian , Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky) - 911 Pskov - 903 Chernigov - 907 Uglich - 937 Iskorosten - 946 Vitebsk - 974 Przemysl - 981 Cherven - 981 Vladimir-Volynsky - 988 Suzdal - 999 Tmutarakan -990s Appendix 3. Photo “Ancient city with your own hands »
Presentation on the topic: Creative research project “Ancient City”

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